. References and . .. Bibliographiques,

. .. Mini-glossaire,

. .. Annexes, , vol.257, p.21

, collectés le matin au cours du bilan de santé, immédiatement stockés à +4 °C puis transmis au Centre de Ressources Biologiques du CHRU de Lille, où ils ont été aliquotés et congelés à -20°C. L'analyse

. Icp-ms, une cellule dynamique de réaction (CRI = « collision reaction interface »)

, Il s'agissait d'une part de MET pour lesquels il existait dans la littérature des données de néphrotoxicité avérée ou probable et, d'autre part, de MET pour lesquels il n'existait pas de données spécifiques de néphrotoxicité, mais retenus à des fins exploratoires, dans un contexte de multi-exposition à différents MET. Quatre des métaux initialement quantifiés (antimoine, béryllium, chrome, l'arsenic total (As), le cadmium (Cd)

. Levey, Le DFG a été estimé par calcul en se servant de l'équation de la Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration, 2009.

, l'autodéclaration d'une hypertension ou d'un diabète, du statut ménopausique, de la consommation de tabac et d'alcool, de médicaments durant les deux derniers jours, les mesures de la glycémie, de la taille, du poids, de la tension artérielle diastolique (TAD) et systolique (TAS). L'indice de masse corporelle (IMC) a été calculé comme le poids en As-U (r = -0,16), Ni-U (r = -0,12), Cd-U (r = -0,11) et Hg-U (r = -0,08). Par ailleurs, il existait une corrélation positive fortement significative (P value < 0.001) entre les logarithmes des concentrations sanguines et urinaires d'un même métal ou métalloïde, chez les femmes, si la cratinine sérique (Scr) ? 0,70 mg/dl étude : les caractéristiques sociodémographiques (âge, sexe, niveau d'étude), vol.10

L. Hg, -. As, -. Co, -. , A. Mn et al., 4 et IV.5 présentent le changement moyen de eDFG avec, respectivement, les quartiles des MET-S et des MET-U, les valeurs ? représentant le changement dans l'eDFG (mL/min/1,73 m 2 ) les niveaux d'eDFG et les niveaux de Pb-S

, ces associations significatives persistaient à l'exception de celle observée avec le Pb-S. Après ajustements supplémentaires sur les autres MET-S (modèle multivarié 2, analyses multi-métaux), seules persistaient des associations inverses significatives avec As-S, Co-S, et Al-S. Par ailleurs, une association inverse significative avec Tl-S et une association positive significative avec Zn-S ont été révélées lors des ajustements successifs (modèles 1 et 2). Aucune association significative n'était observée entre les niveaux d'eDFG et de Cd-S, Après ajustement sur les potentiels facteurs confondants (modèle multivarié 1, analyse monométal)

U. , C. Hg, -. As, -. Co, -. Et et al., U et des associations positives significatives avec les niveaux d'Mn-U et Tl-U. Après ajustement sur les potentiels facteurs confondants (modèle multivarié 1, analyse monométal), les associations significatives précédentes et leur sens persistaient pour l'ensemble des MET-U à l'exception de l'association avec Cd-U qui disparaissait, et du sens de la relation significative avec Pb-U qui s'inversait. Par ailleurs, une association positive significative apparaissait également entre les niveaux d'eDFG et d'U-Al. Au final, après ajustement supplémentaire dans l'urine sur les niveaux sanguins des MET (modèle multivarié 2, analyses multi-métaux), des associations inverses significatives persistaient entre le niveaux d'eDFG et les niveaux d'Hg-U, As-U, Dans l'urine, les analyses brutes ajustées sur les logarithmes des concentrations de créatinine urinaire (modèle univarié) montraient des associations inverses significatives entre les niveaux d'eDFG et les niveaux de Pb

U. , U. Mn, -. Et-tl, and -. ,

. Qu&apos;en-présence-d&apos;al, . Cd, . Co, . Ni, . Mn et al., une diminution d'eDFG était significativement associée à une augmentation sanguine de Al, As, Co, Tl d'une part, et urinaire d'As, Hg, Ni d'autre part. En revanche, une diminution d'eDFG était séparément et conjointement. Plus récemment, Buser et al. (2016) ont observé une association inverse significative entre la variation d'eDFG et de Cd-S, l'absence d'association entre eDFG et Pb-S, et une association positive entre la variation d'eDFG à la fois avec Pb-U et Cd-U. Les auteurs estimèrent que leurs observations étaient cohérentes avec l'hypothèse d'une causalité inverse, 2009.

-. Cd, dans les analyses multivariées monométaux et multi-métaux. Les niveaux moyens (moyennes géométriques) de Pb-S et Cd-S étaient pourtant similaires entre la population NHANES étudiée par

. Navas-acien, respectivement 15,8 µg/L et 0,41µg/L) et notre population d'étude (respectivement 18,9 µg/L et 0,40 µg/L). Toutefois, tout comme Buser et al. (2016), nous avions observé dans les analyses multivariées multi-métaux une association positive significative entre l'eDFG et Pb, 2009.

, U. Nous n'avons toutefois pas observé d'associations significatives avec Cd-U et Cd-S. Cependant, les niveaux de Pb et Cd dans la population NHANES étudiée par Buser et al. (2016) était légèrement plus bas que ceux mesurés dans notre population d'étude

. Kim, De ce fait, nous avons pu observer des associations inverses significatives entre la variation d'eDFG et les niveaux sanguins d'As, Co, Al, Tl ainsi que des niveaux urinaires de Hg, As, Ni, indépendamment des niveaux sanguins et urinaires de Pb et Cd. Très peu d'études en populations générale se sont intéressées à la relation entre le DFG et des bas niveaux environnementaux de MET autres que le Pb et le Cd, à l'instars du Hg, 2009.

. Zheng, La question de la néphrotoxicité de l'As par exemple est aujourd'hui pleinement d'actualité, James et Meliker, 2014.

. Robles-osorio and . Sabath-silva, , 2015.

. Zheng, Dans notre étude, l'association inverse que nous avons observée entre eDFG et As-U est cohérente avec l'étude cas-témoins de Hsueh et al. (2015), qui ont observé une association inverse significative entre le niveau d'As total urinaire et la CKD, avec un effet dose-réponse. Toutefois, la mesure de l'As total étant à la fois le reflet des formes inorganiques et des dérivés organiques d'As, cette association serait davantage liée aux formes inorganiques d'As tel qu, en dépit de la rareté des études épidémiologiques, notamment longitudinales, 2014.

, Quartiles Zn sang Q1 Zn-S

, a Analyses univariées brutes (sans ajustements) dans le sang pour chaque métal et métalloïdes (MET-S)

, Chaque MET-S (variable en quartiles) est ajusté sur le sexe, l'âge (variable linéaire), l'IMC (variable linéaire), le taux d'hémoglobine (variable linéaire), le niveau d'étude, les statuts d'hypertension et de diabète, la consommation d'alcool, le tabagisme, la prise de médicaments

, Chaque MET-S (variable en quartile) est ajusté sur l'ensemble des variables du modèle 1 et sur l'ensemble des autres MET-S (variables linéaires)

, Quartiles Tl urine Q1 Tl-U

, a Analyses univariées (ajustées sur la créatinine urinaire) dans les urines pour chaque métal et métalloïdes (MET-U)

, Chaque MET-U (variable en quartiles) est ajusté sur le sexe, l'âge (variable linéaire), l'IMC (variable linéaire), le taux d'hémoglobine (variable linéaire), le niveau d'étude, les statuts d'hypertension et de diabète, la consommation d'alcool, le tabagisme, la prise de médicaments

, Chaque MET-U (variable en quartile) est ajusté sur l'ensemble des variables du modèle 1 et sur le taux d'hémoglobine et l'ensemble des MET-S (variables linéaires) à l'exception du MET-S correspondant à chaque MET-U spécifiquement étudié

A. Hameed, A. A. Khoder, and M. I. , Evaluation of airborne lead in the welding working environment, J Environ Monit, vol.2, pp.119-121, 2000.

A. Adachi, K. Asai, and Y. Koyama, Vanadium content of cigarettes, Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, vol.61, pp.276-80, 1998.

S. V. Adams and P. A. Newcomb, Cadmium blood and urine concentrations as measures of exposure: NHANES 1999-2010, J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, vol.24, pp.163-70, 2014.

A. A. Adnan, S. S. Azhar, and M. O. Hasni, Urinary Cadmium Concentration and its Risk Factors among Adults in Tanjung Karang, Selangor. Am-Eur Journ Toxicol Sci, vol.4, pp.80-88, 2012.

I. Aguilera, A. Daponte, and F. Gil, Biomonitoring of urinary metals in a population living in the vicinity of industrial sources: a comparison with the general population of Andalusia, Spain. Sci Total Environ, vol.407, pp.669-678, 2008.

A. Aitio, V. Riihimäki, S. Valkonen, and . Aluminium, In Biological monitoring of chemical exposure in the workplace, WHO, vol.2, pp.1-17, 1996.

A. Åkesson, L. Barregard, and I. A. Bergdahl, Non-renal effects and the risk assessment of environmental cadmium exposure, Environ Health Perspect, vol.122, pp.431-439, 2014.

A. Åkesson, T. Lundh, and M. Vahter, Tubular and glomerular kidney effects in Swedish women with low environmental cadmium exposure, Environ Health Perspect, vol.113, pp.1627-1631, 2005.

R. M. Al-ashban, M. Aslam, and A. H. Shah, Kohl (surma): a toxic traditional eye cosmetic study in Saudi Arabia, Public Health, vol.118, pp.292-298, 2004.

R. Albertini, M. Bird, and N. Doerrer, The use of biomonitoring data in exposure and human health risk assessments, Environ Health Perspect, vol.114, pp.1755-1762, 2006.

A. , A. , S. Shinwari, and N. , Assessment of lead in cosmetic products, Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, vol.54, pp.105-113, 2009.

J. Angerer, . Aylward, . Ll, and S. M. Hays, Human biomonitoring assessment values: approaches and data requirement, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.214, pp.348-360, 2011.

J. Angerer, U. Ewers, and M. Wilhelm, Human biomonitoring: State of the art, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.210, pp.201-228, 2007.

, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety). 2013. The health effects of lead levels below 100 µg/L. ANSES Opinion. Scientific Edition, 2015.

P. Apostoli, A. Baj, and P. Bavazzano, Blood lead reference values: The results of an Italian polycentric study, Sci Total Environ, vol.287, pp.1-11, 2002.

S. Araki, K. Murata, and H. Aono, Comparison of the effects of urinary flow on adjusted and nonadjusted excretion of heavy metals and organic substances in 'healthy' men, J Appl Toxicol, vol.6, pp.245-251, 1986.

N. Arnich, V. Sirot, and G. Rivière, Dietary exposure to trace elements and health risk assessment in the 2nd French total diet study, Food Chem Toxicol, vol.50, pp.2432-2449, 2012.

, Atlas Régional et Territorial de Santé, 2011.

. De-calais, PRS/PRS_13Janv/atlas_regional_ santenpdc2011-opt2.pdf [last accessed, 2016.

D. P. Askin and M. Volkmann, Effect of Personal Hygiene on Blood Lead Levels of Workers at a Lead Processing Facility, Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, vol.58, pp.752-753, 1997.

, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 1992. Toxicological profile for antimony and compounds, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2015.

, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2002. Toxicological profile for beryllium

, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2007. Toxicological Profile for Lead

G. S. Atlanta, Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 2015.

, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2012. Toxicological Profile for Cadmium

. Dept, H. Health, and . Services, , 2016.

L. L. Aylward, S. M. Hays, and R. Smolders, Sources of variability in biomarker concentrations, 2014.

, Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, vol.17, pp.45-61

W. Baeyens, J. Vrijens, and Y. Gao, Trace metals in blood and urine of newborn/mother pairs, adolescents and adults of the Flemish population, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.217, pp.878-890, 2007.

F. Barbosa, J. E. Tanus-santos, and R. F. Gerlach, A critical review of biomarkers used for monitoring human exposure to lead: advantages, limitations, and future needs, Environ Health Perspect, vol.113, pp.1669-1674, 2005.

D. B. Barr, L. C. Wilder, and S. P. Caudill, Urinary creatinine concentrations in the U.S. population: implications for urinary biologic monitoring measurements, Environ Health Perspect, vol.113, pp.192-200, 2005.

P. S. Barry, A comparison of concentrations of lead in human tissues, Brit J Ind Med, vol.32, pp.119-139, 1975.

A. Batáriová, V. Spevácková, and B. Benes, Blood and urine levels of Pb, Cd and Hg in the general population of the Czech Republic and proposed reference values, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.209, p.359, 2006.

C. Beaucham, E. Page, and W. A. Alarcon, Indoor firing ranges and elevated blood lead levels -United States, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, vol.63, pp.347-351, 2002.

K. Becker, A. Conrad, and N. Kirsch, German Environmental Survey (GerES): human biomonitoring as a tool to identify exposure pathways, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.210, pp.267-269, 2007.

K. Becker, S. Kaus, and C. Krause, Environmental pollutants in blood of the German population, German Environmental Survey, vol.205, pp.297-308, 1998.

K. Becker, C. Schroeter-kermani, and M. Seiwert, German health-related environmental monitoring: assessing time trends of the general population's exposure to heavy metals, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.216, pp.250-254, 2013.

N. L. Benowitz, Cotinine as a biomarker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure, Epidemiol Rev, vol.18, pp.188-204, 1996.

I. A. Bergdahl, A. Schütz, and L. Gerhardsson, Lead concentrations in human plasma, urine and whole blood, Scand J Work Environ Health, vol.23, pp.359-363, 1997.

A. Bernard, Confusion about Cadmium Risks: The Unrecognized Limitations of an Extrapolated Paradigm, Environ Health Perspect, vol.124, pp.1-5, 2016.

A. M. Bernard, A. Vyskocil, and H. Roels, Renal Effects in Children Living in the Vicinity of a Lead Smelter, Environ Res, vol.68, pp.91-95, 1995.

T. Bhuvanakrishna, G. M. Blake, and R. Hilton, Comparison of estimated DFG and measured DFG in prospective living kidney donors, Int Urol Nephrol, vol.47, pp.201-208, 2015.

B. Bocca, D. Mattei, and A. Pino, Italian network for human biomonitoring of metals: preliminary results from two Regions, Ann DellIstituto Super Sanità, vol.46, pp.259-265, 2010.

J. P. Bressler and G. W. Goldstein, Mechanisms of lead neurotoxicity, Biochem Pharmacol, vol.41, pp.479-484, 1991.

U. C. Brewster and M. A. Perazella, A review of chronic lead intoxication: An unrecognized cause of chronic kidney disease, Am J Med Sci, vol.327, pp.341-347, 2004.

A. Brockhaus, I. Freier, and U. Ewers, Levels of cadmium and lead in blood in relation to smoking, sex, occupation, and other factors in an adult population of the FRG, Intern Arch Occup Environ Heal, vol.52, pp.167-175, 1983.

K. Brück, V. S. Stel, and G. Gambaro, CKD Prevalence Varies across the European General Population, J Am Soc Nephrol, vol.27, pp.2135-2182, 2015.

M. Bruyneel, D. Caluwé, J. P. Des-grottes, and J. M. , Use of kohl and severe lead poisoning in Brussels, Rev Med Brux, vol.23, pp.519-522, 2002.

M. C. Buser, S. Z. Ingber, and N. Raines, Urinary and blood cadmium and lead and kidney function: NHANES 2007-2012, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.219, pp.261-267, 2016.

T. Bushnik, D. Haines, and P. Levallois, Lead and bisphenol A concentrations in the Canadian population, Health Rep, vol.21, pp.7-18, 2010.

K. Byber, D. Lison, and V. Verougstraete, Cadmium or cadmium compounds and chronic kidney disease in workers and the general population: a systematic review, Crit Rev Toxicol, vol.46, pp.191-240, 2016.

S. Cai, L. Yue, and T. Jin, Renal dysfunction from cadmium contamination of irrigation water: Doseresponse analysis in a Chinese population, WHO Bull, vol.76, pp.153-159, 1998.

A. I. Cañas, M. Cervantes-amat, and M. Esteban, Blood lead levels in a representative sample of the Spanish adult population: The BIOAMBIENT.ES project, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.217, pp.452-459, 2014.

A. I. Cañas, M. Cervantes-amat, and M. Esteban, Blood lead levels in a representative sample of the Spanish adult population: The BIOAMBIENT.ES project, Int. J Hyg Environ Health, vol.217, pp.452-459, 2014.

X. M. Cao, J. Wang, and G. Xia, Analysis of the association between renal function parameters and urinary nickel or chromium in patients with dental restoration of nickel-chromium alloys, Shanghai Kou Qiang Yi Xue, vol.21, pp.312-316, 2012.

A. Cárdenas, H. Roels, and B. A. , Markers of early renal changes induced by industrial pollutants. II. Application to workers exposed to lead, Brit J Ind Med, vol.50, pp.28-36, 1993.

L. Casteleyn, B. Dumez, and K. Becker, A pilot study on the feasibility of European harmonized human biomonitoring: Strategies towards a common approach, challenges and opportunities, Environ Res, vol.141, pp.3-14, 2015.

, Preventing lead poisoning in young children, 1991.

G. A. Atlanta, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2015.

, Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Low level lead exposure harms children: a renewed call for primary prevention, 2012.

G. A. Atlanta, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2015.

, Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to environmental Chemicals, Updated Tables, 2012.

. Updatedtables_sep2012 and . Pdf, , 2015.

, CDC (Centers for Disease Control). 2010. Nhanes, General Information for the Public Files of the, 2007.

, About the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014.

, Managing Elevated Blood Lead Levels Among Young Children: Recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002.

, Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children, 2005.

, A Statement by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

M. Cerná, A. Krsková, and M. Cejchanová, Human biomonitoring in the Czech Republic: an overview, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.109-119, 2012.

M. Cerná, V. Sp?vácková, and A. Batáriová, Human biomonitoring system in the Czech Republic, 2007.

, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.210, pp.495-499

A. C. Chamberlain, Prediction of Response of Blood Lead to Airborne and Dietary Lead from Volunteer Experiments with Lead Isotopes, Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, vol.224, pp.149-182, 1985.

J. W. Chen, H. Y. Chen, and W. F. Li, The association between total urinary arsenic concentration and renal dysfunction in a community-based population from central Taiwan, Chemosphere, vol.84, pp.17-24, 2011.

S. Chung, J. H. Chung, and S. J. Kim, Blood lead and cadmium levels and renal function in Korean adults, Clin Exp Nephrol, vol.18, pp.726-734, 2014.

C. S. Clark, A. Kumar, and P. Mohapatra,

C. S. Clark, K. G. Rampal, and V. Thuppil, Lead levels in new enamel household paints from Asia, Africa and South America, Environ Res, vol.109, pp.930-936, 2009.

W. G. Cochran, Sampling Techniques, p.135, 1977.

J. Cocker, H. J. Mason, and N. D. Warren, Creatinine adjustment of biological monitoring results, 2011.

, Occup Med (Lond.), vol.61, pp.349-353

S. A. Counter, L. H. Buchanan, and F. Ortega, Blood Lead Levels in Andean Infants and Young Children in Ecuador: An International Comparison, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.78, pp.778-787, 2015.

W. G. Couser, G. Remuzzi, and S. Mendis, The contribution of chronic kidney disease to the global burden of major noncommunicablediseases, Kidney Int, vol.80, pp.1258-1270, 2011.

M. Dakeishi, K. Murata, and A. Tamura, Relation between benchmark dose and no-observedadverse-effect level in clinical research: effects of daily alcohol intake on blood pressure in Japanese salesmen, Risk Anal, vol.26, pp.115-123, 2006.

A. C. De-almeida-lopes, A. Navas-acien, and R. Zamoiski, Risk factors for lead exposure in adult population in Southern Brazil, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.78, pp.92-108, 2015.

C. De-burbure, J. P. Buchet, and A. Bernard, Biomarkers of renal effects in children and adults with low environmental exposure to heavy metals, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.66, pp.783-798, 2003.

J. De-caluwé, Lead poisoning caused by prolonged use of kohl, an underestimated cause in French-speaking countries, J Fr Ophtalmol, vol.32, p.75, 2009.

C. Declercq and L. Ladrière, Programme de dépistage du saturnisme infantile dans 9 communes du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais -Bilan de la campagne 2004-2005. Observatoire régional de la santé Nord, 2005.

, Pasde-Calais et Comité d'hygiène sociale du Pas-de-Calais, vol.12

L. De-temmerman and M. Hoenig, Vegetable Crops for Biomonitoring Lead and Cadmium Deposition, 2004.

, J Atmosph Chem, vol.49, pp.121-135

P. Delanaye, E. Cavalier, and C. Mariat, MDRD or CKD-EPI study equations for estimating prevalence of stage 3 CKD in epidemiological studies: which difference? Is this difference relevant?, BMC Nephrol, vol.11, issue.8, 2010.

M. Demmeler, D. Nowak, and R. Schierl, High blood lead levels in recreational indoor-shooters, Int Arch Occu Environ Health, vol.82, pp.539-542, 2009.

M. Denham, L. M. Schell, and G. Deane, Relationship of Lead, Mercury, Mirex, Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, Hexachlorobenzene, and Polychlorinated Biphenyls to Timing of, 2005.

, Menarche Among Akwesasne Mohawk Girls. Pediatrics, vol.115, pp.27-34

C. Ding, Y. Pan, and A. Zhang, Distribution of chromium in whole blood and urine among general population in China between year, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.46, pp.679-682, 2009.

C. Ding, Y. Pan, and A. Zhang, Study of distribution and influencing factors of arsenic in whole blood and urine among population in 8 provinces in China, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.48, p.97, 2014.

C. Ding, Y. Pan, and A. Zhang, Study of distribution and influencing factors of lead and cadmium in whole blood and urine among population in 8 provinces in China, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.48, pp.91-97, 2014.

H. Dönmez, N. Dursun, and Y. Özkul, Increased sister chromatid exchanges in workers exposed to occupational lead and Zinc, Biol Trace Elem Res, vol.61, pp.105-109, 1998.

S. Dorofeev and P. Grant, Statistics for Real-Life Sample Surveys: Non-Simple-Random Samples and Weighted Data, pp.89-90, 2006.

F. Douay, A. Pelfrêne, and J. Planque, Assessment of potential health risk for inhabitants living near a former lead smelter. Part 1: Metal concentrations in soils, agricultural crops, and homegrown vegetables, Environ Monit Assess, vol.185, pp.3665-3680, 2013.

F. Douay, H. Roussel, and H. Fourrier, Investigation of heavy metal concentrations on urban soils, dust and vegetables nearby a former smelter site in Mortagne du Nord, Northern France, J Soils Sediments, vol.7, pp.143-146, 2007.

G. Dziubanek, A. Piekut, and M. Rusin, Contamination of food crops grown on soils with elevated heavy metals content, Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, vol.118, pp.183-189, 2015.

, Scientific opinion on lead in food, EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), vol.8, pp.1570-1717, 2010.

, EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), European Food Safety Authority. EFSA Journal, vol.8, p.1570, 2010.

R. Ehrlich, T. Robins, and E. Jordaan, Lead absorption and renal dysfunction in a South African battery factory, Occup Environ Med, vol.55, pp.453-460, 1998.

E. B. Ekong, B. G. Jaar, and V. M. Weaver, Lead-related nephrotoxicity: a review of the epidemiologic evidence, Kidney Int, vol.70, pp.2074-2084, 2006.

C. Elinder, T. Kjellström, and B. Lind, Assessment of exposure to lead and cadmium through biological monitoring: Results of a UNEP/WHO global study, Environ Res, vol.32, pp.220-227, 1983.

C. Elinder and M. Nordberg, Cadmium and Health. A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal, 1985.

C. Elinder, Cadmium and Health. A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal, p.3, 1985.

E. M. Erfurth, L. Gerhardsson, and A. Nilsson, Effects of Lead on the Endocrine System in Lead Smelter Workers, Arch Environ. Health, vol.56, pp.449-455, 2001.

J. Erkkilä, A. R. Riihimäki, and V. , In vivo measurements of lead in bone at four anatomical sites: long term occupational and consequent endogenous exposure, Brit J Ind Med, vol.49, pp.631-644, 1992.

M. Esteban and A. Castaño, Non-invasive matrices in human biomonitoring: a review, Environ Int, vol.35, pp.438-487, 2009.

M. Esteban, M. Ruiz-moraga, and B. Pérez-gómez, Practical features of the pre-analytical phase of the BIOAMBIENT.ES biomonitoring study, Gac Sanit, vol.27, pp.77-80, 2013.

M. Evans and C. G. Elinder, Chronic renal failure from lead: myth or evidence-based fact?, Kidney Int, vol.79, pp.272-279, 2011.

M. Evans, C. M. Fored, and G. Nise, Occupational lead exposure and severe CKD: a populationbased case-control and prospective observational cohort study in Sweden, Am J Kidney Dis, vol.55, p.497, 2010.

P. D. Evans and M. W. Taal, Epidemiology and causes of chronic kidney disease, Medicine, vol.43, p.8, 2015.

G. Falq, A. Zeghnoun, and M. Pascal, Blood lead levels in the adult population living in France the French Nutrition and Health Survey (ENNS, Environ Int, vol.37, pp.565-571, 2006.

, Advice 07-2009 of the Scientific Committee of the FASFC: Lead and nickel in coffee (dossier Sci Com 2009/06), 2009.

P. M. Ferraro, S. Costanzi, and A. Naticchia, Low level exposure to cadmium increases the risk of chronic kidney disease: analysis of the NHANES, BMC Public Health, vol.10, p.304, 1999.

R. Ferri, D. Hashim, and D. R. Smith, Metal contamination of home garden soils and cultivated vegetables in the province of Brescia, Italy: implications for human exposure, Sci Total Environ, vol.518, pp.507-517, 2015.

M. E. Finster, K. A. Gray, and H. J. Binns, Lead levels of edibles grown in contaminated residential soils: a field survey, Sci Total Environ, vol.320, pp.245-257, 2004.

P. R. Flanagan, J. S. Mclellan, and J. Haist, Increased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency, Gastroenterology, vol.74, pp.841-846, 1978.

G. Forte, R. Madeddu, and P. Tolu, Reference intervals for blood Cd and Pb in the general population of Sardinia (Italy), Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.214, pp.102-109, 2011.

J. Frangi and D. Richard, Heavy metal soil pollution cartography in Northern France, Sci Total Environ, vol.205, pp.71-79, 1997.

C. Freire, R. J. Koifman, and D. Fujimoto, Reference values of lead in blood and related factors among blood Donors in the Western Amazon, Brazil, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.77, pp.426-440, 2014.

N. Fréry, A. Saoudi, and R. Garnier, Exposition de la population française aux substances chimiques de l'environnement, p.151, 2011.

N. Fréry, S. Vandentorren, and A. Etchevers, Highlights of recent studies and future plans for the French human biomonitoring (HBM) programme, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.127-132, 2012.

L. Friberg and M. Vahter, Assessment of exposure to lead and cadmium through biological monitoring: Results of a UNEP/WHO global study, Environ Res, vol.30, pp.95-128, 1983.

L. Friberg, Further investigations on chronic cadmium poisoning; a study on rabbits with radioactive cadmium, AM A Arch Ind Hyg Occup Med, vol.5, pp.30-36, 1952.

Y. Fukui, M. Miki, and H. Ukai, Urinary lead as a possible surrogate of blood lead among workers occupationally exposed to lead, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.72, pp.516-520, 1999.

R. Garnier and J. Poupon, Intoxication par le plomb résultant de l'utilisation d'un remède traditionnel indien, La Presse Médicale, vol.35, pp.1177-1180, 2006.

R. Garnier, Toxicité du plomb et de ses dérivés, EMC-Toxicologie Pathologie, vol.2, pp.67-88, 2005.

K. H. Gelberg and R. Depersis, Lead exposure among target shooters, Arch Environ Occup Health, vol.64, pp.115-120, 2009.

P. M. George, T. A. Walmsley, and D. Currie, Lead exposure during recreational use of small bore rifle ranges, N Z Med J, vol.106, pp.422-424, 1993.

A. L. Gollenberg, M. L. Hediger, and P. A. Lee, Association between lead and cadmium and reproductive hormones in peripubertal U, S. Girls. Environ. Health Perspect, vol.118, pp.1782-1787, 2010.

H. C. Gonick, Nephrotoxicity of cadmium & lead, Indian J Med Res, vol.128, pp.335-352, 2008.

E. González-de-mejía and A. L. Craigmill, Transfer of lead from lead-glazed ceramics to food, Arch Environ Contam Toxicol, vol.31, pp.581-584, 1996.

M. Goodman, N. Laverda, and C. Clarke, Neurobehavioural testing in workers occupationally exposed to lead: systematic review and meta-analysis of publications, Occup Environ Med, vol.59, pp.217-223, 2002.

P. Gottesfeld, D. Pokhrel, and A. K. Pokhrel, Lead in new paints in Nepal, Environ Res, vol.132, pp.70-75, 2014.

J. P. Goullé, L. Mahieu, and E. Saussereau, Plasma and whole blood multielementary ICP-MS determination: influence of the blood collection device, Ann Toxicol Anal, vol.20, pp.97-102, 2008.

G. Fréry, C. Fréry, N. Berrebi, A. Cordier, S. Garnier et al., Quels risques pour la santé ? Synthèse des études épidémiologiques. Volet épidémiologique de l'expertise collective InVS-Afssa-Afssaps

K. Grandahl, P. S. Peter, and J. , Individual and environmental risk factor for high blood lead concentrations in Danish indoor shooters, Danish Med J, vol.59, p.4488, 2012.

P. Grandjean, N. B. Olsen, and H. Hollnagel, Influence of smoking and alcohol consumption on blood lead levels, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.48, pp.391-397, 1981.

J. H. Graziano and C. Blum, Lead exposure from lead crystal, Lancet, vol.337, pp.141-143, 1991.

R. E. Green and D. J. Pain, Potential health risks to adults and children in the UK from exposure to dietary lead in gamebirds shot with lead ammunition, Food Chem Toxicol, vol.50, pp.4180-4190, 2012.

M. Grembecka, E. Malinowska, and P. Szefer, Differentiation of market coffee and its infusions in view of their mineral composition, Sci Total Environ, vol.383, pp.59-69, 2007.

P. Gschwend, Analysis Quota Sample Data and the Peer review Process, French Politics, vol.3, p.88, 2005.

B. Gulson, M. K. Korsch, and M. , Mobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation-a summary of long-term research, Sci Total Environ, vol.303, pp.79-104, 2003.

B. Gulson, M. Korsch, and W. Winchester, Successful application of lead isotopes in source apportionment, legal proceedings, remediation and monitoring, Environ Res, vol.112, pp.100-110, 2012.

Å. Gustafson, P. Hedner, and A. Schütz, Occupational lead exposure and pituitary function, Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, vol.61, pp.277-281, 1989.

L. Hagmar, S. Bonassi, and U. Strömberg, Cancer predictive value of cytogenetic markers used in occupational health surveillance programs: a report from an ongoing study by the European Study Group on Cytogenetic Biomarkers and Health, Mutat. Res, vol.405, pp.171-178, 1998.

D. A. Haines and J. Murray, Human biomonitoring of environmental chemicals--early results of the, 2007.

, Canadian Health Measures Survey for males and females, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.133-137

W. Y. Han, F. J. Zhao, and Y. Z. Shi, Scale and causes of lead contamination in Chinese tea, Environ Pollut, vol.39, pp.125-132, 2006.

, Lead exposure: determination of new risk management objectives. Overview and recommendations. Collection Avis et Rapports, HCSP, 2014.

, Final Human Health State of the Science Report on Lead, 2013.

, Second Report on Human Biomonitoring of Environmental Chemicals in Canada, 2013.

H. Canada, Third Report on Human Biomonitoring of Environmental Chemicals in Canada, 2015.

P. Heitland and H. D. Koster, Biomonitoring of 37 trace elements in blood samples from inhabitants of northern Germany by ICP-MS, J Trace Elem Med Biol, vol.20, pp.253-262, 2006.

I. Helal, G. M. Fick-brosnahan, and B. Reed-gitomer, Glomerular hyperfiltration: definitions, mechanisms and clinical implications, Nat Rev Nephrol, vol.8, pp.293-300, 2012.

L. Hellstrom, J. Järup, and B. Persson, Using environmental concentrations of cadmium and lead to assess human exposure and dose, J Expo Anal Environ Epid, vol.14, pp.416-423, 2004.

P. Hoet, C. Jacquerye, and G. Deumer, Reference values and upper reference limits for 26 trace elements in the urine of adults living in Belgium, Clin Chem Lab Med, vol.51, pp.839-849, 2013.

P. Hotz, J. P. Buchet, and A. Bernard, Renal effects of low-level environmental cadmium exposure: 5-year follow-up of a subcohort from the Cadmibel study, Lancet, vol.354, pp.1508-1513, 1999.

Y. M. Hsueh, C. J. Chung, and H. S. Shiue, Urinary arsenic species and CKD in a Taiwanese population: a case-control study, Am J Kidney Dis, vol.54, pp.859-870, 2009.

G. Huel, N. Fréry, and L. Takser, Evolution of blood lead levels in urban French population, 1979.

, Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, vol.50, pp.287-295

W. G. Hunt, R. T. Watson, and J. L. Oaks, Lead Bullet Fragments in Venison from Rifle-Killed Deer: Potential for Human Dietary Exposure, PloS One, vol.4, p.5330, 2009.

J. B. Hursh and J. Suomela, Absorption of pb from the Gastrointestinal Tract of Man, Acta Radiol, vol.7, p.108, 1968.

Y. Hwangbo, V. M. Weaver, and M. Tellez-plaza, Blood cadmium and estimated glomerular filtration rate in Korean adults, Environ Health Perspect, vol.119, pp.1800-1805, 2011.

, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, vol.87, 2006.

, Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. World Health Organization, 2012. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol.100, 2016.

M. Ikeda, Z. W. Zhang, and S. Shimbo, Exposure of women in general populations to lead via food and air in East and Southeast Asia, Am J Ind Med, vol.38, pp.271-280, 2000.

, Base de données Biotox, disponible sur : www.inrs.fr/biotox -dernières mises à jour, 2016.

, INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques). 2010a. Insee

, Les Dossiers de Profils N° 96 -Janvier, 2010.

. Consulté-À-partir-de-l&apos;url, , 2016.

, INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques). 2010b. Insee

. Consulté-À-partir-de-l&apos;url, , 2016.

, Insee Dossier Nord-Pasde-Calais N° 1 -Décembre, INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques), 2014.

S. Iqbal, W. Blumenthal, and C. Kennedy, Hunting with lead: Association between blood lead levels and wild game consumption, Environ Res, vol.109, pp.952-959, 2009.

O. M. Poulsen, E. Holst, and J. M. Christensen, A supplement to the approved IFCC recommendation (1987) on the theory of reference values, Pure Appl Chem, vol.69, pp.1601-1611, 1997.

M. S. Jaakkola and J. J. Jaakkola, Assessment of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, Eur Respir J, vol.10, pp.2384-97, 1997.

R. B. Jain and Y. S. Choi, Normal reference ranges for and variability in the levels of blood manganese and selenium by gender, age, and race/ethnicity for general U.S. population, J Trace Elem Med Biol, vol.30, pp.142-152, 2015.

K. James and J. R. Meliker, Is arsenic a contributor to CKD?, Am J Kidney Dis, vol.61, pp.364-365, 2013.

H. James and M. Hilburn, Effects of Meals and Meal Times on Uptake of Lead from the Gastrointestinal Tract in Humans. Human. Toxicol, vol.4, pp.401-407, 1985.

W. Jang, K. Lim, and K. Kim, Low level of lead can induce phosphatidylserine exposure and erythrophagocytosis: A new mechanism underlying lead-associated anemia, Toxicol Sci, vol.122, pp.177-184, 2011.

L. Järup, M. Berglund, and C. Elinder, Health effects of cadmium exposure -A review of the literature and a risk estimate, Scand J Work Environ Health, vol.24, pp.1-51, 1998.

L. Järup, M. D. Carlsson, and C. Elinder, Decreased glomerular filtration rate in solderers exposed to cadmium, Occup Environ Med, vol.52, pp.818-822, 1995.

L. Jarup, B. Persson, and C. G. Elinder, Blood cadmium as an indicator of dose in a long-term follow-up of workers previously exposed to cadmium, Scand J Work Environ Health, vol.23, pp.31-36, 1997.

L. Jarup, A. Rogenfelt, and C. G. Elinder, Biological half-time of cadmium in the blood of workers after cessation of exposure, Scand J Work Environ Health, vol.9, pp.327-331, 1983.

C. Jayasumana, R. Gajanayake, and S. Siribaddana, Importance of Arsenic and pesticides in epidemic chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka, BMC Nephrol, vol.15, p.124, 2014.

, JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2004. 63rd meeting of the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants. WHO Technical Report Series 922

, JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2011. Seventy-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants

S. W. Jeong, C. K. Lee, C. H. Suh, and K. H. Kim, Blood lead concentration and related factors in Korea from the 2008 National Survey for Environmental Pollutants in the Human Body, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.217, pp.871-877, 2014.

C. W. Jin, S. J. Zheng, and Y. F. He, Lead contamination in tea garden soils and factors affecting its bioavailability, Chemosphere, vol.59, pp.1151-1159, 2005.

T. Jin, G. F. Nordberg, and M. Nordberg, Uptake of cadmium in isolated kidney cells-influence of binding form and in vivo pretreatment, J Appl Toxicol, vol.6, pp.397-400, 1986.

D. Juresa and M. Blanusa, Mercury, arsenic, lead and cadmium in fish and shellfish from the Adriatic Sea, Food Addit Contam, vol.20, pp.241-246, 2003.

A. Juutilainen, H. Kastarinen, and R. Antikainen, Trends in estimated kidney function: the FINRISK surveys, Eur J Epidemiol, vol.27, pp.305-313, 2012.

J. Kagi, M. Vasak, and K. Lerch, Structure of mammalian metallothionein, Environ Health Perspect, vol.54, pp.93-103, 1984.

S. N. Kelada, E. Shelton, and R. B. Kaufmann, Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genotype and lead toxicity: a HuGE review, Am J Epidemiol, vol.154, pp.1-13, 2001.

L. M. Kelsall, T. E. De-gooyer, and M. Carey, Blood lead levels in the adult Victorian population: results from the Victorian Health Monitor, Aust N Z J Public Health, vol.37, pp.233-237, 2013.

E. J. Kim, J. E. Herrera, and D. Huggins, Effect of pH on the concentrations of lead and trace contaminants in drinking water: A combined batch, pipe loop and sentinel home study, Water Res, vol.45, pp.2763-2774, 2011.

E. J. Kim and J. E. Herrera,

J. H. Kim, J. Y. Lee, and J. E. Seo, Lead, cadmium and mercury levels in the 2010 Korean diet, Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill, vol.5, pp.260-264, 2012.

N. H. Kim, Y. Y. Hyun, and K. B. Lee, Environmental heavy metal exposure and chronic kidney disease in the general population, J Korean Med Sci, vol.30, p.507, 2015.

N. Kim and B. Lee, Erratum to: National estimates of blood lead, cadmium, and mercury levels in the Korean general adult population, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.84, p.65, 2011.

N. Kim and B. Lee, National estimates of blood lead, cadmium, and mercury levels in the Korean general adult population, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.84, pp.53-63, 2011.

Y. Kim and B. K. Lee, Associations of blood lead, cadmium, and mercury with estimated glomerular filtration rate in the Korean general population: analysis of 2008-2010 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, Environ Res, vol.118, pp.124-129, 2012.

Y. Kim and B. Lee, Increased erythrocyte lead levels correlate with decreased hemoglobin levels in the Korean general population: Analysis of 2008-2010 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.86, pp.741-748, 2013.

Y. Kim, D. T. Lobdell, and C. W. Wright, Blood metal concentrations of manganese, lead, and cadmium in relation to serum ferritin levels in Ohio residents, Biol Trace Elem Res, vol.165, pp.1-9, 2015.

T. Kjellström, Mortality and cancer morbidity among cadmium-exposed workers, Environ. Health Perspect, vol.28, pp.169-197, 1979.

K. Klotz, W. Weistenhöfer, and H. Drexler, Determination of cadmium in biological samples, Met Ions Life Sci, vol.11, pp.85-98, 2013.

R. Kodell, Replace the NOAEL and LOAEL with the BMDL01and BMDL10, Environmental and Ecological Statistics, vol.16, pp.3-12, 2009.

E. F. Krieg, The relationships between blood lead levels and serum follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Environ. Res, vol.104, pp.374-382, 2007.

R. Kuno, M. H. Roquetti, and K. Becker, Reference values for lead, cadmium and mercury in the blood of adults from the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo, Brazil, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.216, pp.243-249, 2013.

I. Lancranjan, H. Popescu, and O. Gavanescu, Reproductive Ability of Workmen Occupationally Exposed to Lead, Arch Environ Health, vol.30, pp.396-401, 1975.

B. P. Lanphear, R. Hornung, and J. Khoury, Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children's Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis, Environ Health Perspect, vol.113, p.894, 2005.

R. Lauwerys, H. Roels, and M. Regniers, Significance of cadmium concentration in blood and in urine in workers exposed to cadmium, Environ Res, vol.20, pp.375-391, 1979.

R. R. Lauwerys and P. Hoët, In Industrial chemical exposure: Guidelines for biological monitoring, pp.12-19, 2001.

D. P. Laxen, G. M. Raab, and M. Fulton, Children's blood lead and exposure to lead in household dust and water--a basis for an environmental standard for lead in dust, Sci Total Environ, vol.66, pp.235-244, 1987.

J. Leblanc, T. Guérin, and L. Noël, Dietary exposure estimates of 18 elements from the 1st, 2005.

, French Total Diet Study. Food Addit Contam, vol.22, pp.624-641

S. Leblond and X. Laffray, BRAMM survey -4th monitoring survey of Heavy metal deposition in France by moss analysis. Final report, 2011.

B. Lee and Y. Kim, Association between bone mineral density and blood lead level in menopausal women: Analysis of 2008-2009 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data, Environ Res, vol.115, pp.59-65, 2012.

B. K. Lee and Y. Kim, Sex-specific profiles of blood metal levels associated with metal-iron interactions, 2014.

, Saf Health Work, vol.5, pp.113-117

J. W. Lee, C. K. Lee, and C. S. Moon, Korea National Survey for Environmental Pollutants in the Human Body 2008: Heavy metals in the blood or urine of the Korean population, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.449-457, 2012.

L. J. Lei, L. Chen, and T. Y. Jin, Estimation of benchmark dose for pancreatic damage in cadmiumexposed smelters, Toxicol Sci, vol.97, pp.189-195, 2007.

L. J. Lei, L. Chen, and T. Y. Jin, Estimation of Benchmark Dose for Pancreatic Damage in Cadmium-Exposed Smelters, Tox Sci, vol.97, pp.189-195, 2007.

A. Leroyer, C. Nisse, and D. Hemon, Environmental lead exposure in a population of children in northern France: factors affecting lead burden, Am J Ind Med, vol.38, pp.281-289, 2000.

A. Leroyer, D. Hemon, and C. Nisse, Environmental exposure to lead in a population of adults living in Northern France: Lead burden levels and their determinants, Sci Total Environ, vol.267, pp.87-99, 2001.

A. Leroyer, D. Hemon, and C. Nisse, Determinants of cadmium burden levels in a population of children living in the vicinity of nonferrous smelters, Environ Res, vol.87, pp.147-159, 2001.

A. S. Levey and J. Coresh, Chronic kidney disease, Lancet, vol.379, pp.165-180, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02445392

A. S. Levey, K. U. Eckardt, and Y. Tsukamoto, Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO), Kidney Int, vol.67, p.2089, 2005.

A. S. Levey, L. A. Stevens, and C. H. Schmid, A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate, 2009.

, Ann Intern Med, vol.150, p.408, 2011.

G. P. Lewis, L. Coughlin, and W. Jusko, Contribution of cigarette smoking to cadmium accumulation in man, Lancet, vol.1, pp.291-292, 1972.

G. J. Li, L. L. Zhang, and L. Lu, Occupational exposure to welding fume among welders: alterations of manganese, iron, zinc, copper, and lead in body fluids and the oxidative stress status, J Occup Environ Med, vol.46, pp.241-248, 2004.

M. Li, J. Cao, and J. Xu, The national trend of blood lead levels among Chinese children aged 0-18 years old, Environ Int, vol.71, pp.109-117, 1990.

F. Liang, G. Zhang, and M. Tan, Lead in Children's Blood Is Mainly Caused by Coal-Fired Ash after Phasing out of Leaded Gasoline in Shanghai, Environ. Sci Technol, vol.44, pp.4760-4765, 2010.

J. Lin, L. Hsu, and K. , Environmental lead exposure and progression of chronic renal diseases in patients without diabetes, N Engl J Med, vol.348, pp.277-286, 2003.

J. Liu, D. Gao, and Y. Chen, Lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy and neurobehavioral development of neonates, Neurotoxicology, vol.44, pp.1-7, 2014.

M. Loghman-adham, Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure, Environ Health Persp, vol.105, pp.928-939, 1997.

A. López-herranz, F. Cutanda, and E. M. , Cadmium levels in a representative sample of the Spanish adult population: The BIOAMBIENT.ESproject, J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, vol.26, p.471480, 2015.

J. Lucas, A history of French regulation of the use of white lead and other lead compounds in paints, Environ Risques Santé, vol.10, pp.316-322, 2011.

D. M. Mannino, F. Holguin, and H. M. Greves, Urinary cadmium levels predict lower lung function in current and former smokers: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Thorax, vol.59, pp.194-198, 2004.

D. M. Mannino, D. M. Homa, and T. Matte, Active and passive smoking and blood lead levels in U.S. Adults: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Nicotine Tobacco Res, vol.7, pp.557-564, 2005.

G. Markowitz and D. Rosner, Deceit and Denial. The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution, With a New Epilogue, vol.446, 2002.

O. Masci, G. Carelli, and F. Vinci, Blood lead concentration and biological effects in workers exposed to very low lead levels, J Occup Environ Med, vol.40, pp.886-894, 1998.

L. H. Mason, J. P. Harp, and D. Y. Han, Pb Neurotoxicity: Neuropsychological effects of lead toxicity, 2014.

, Biomed Res Int, vol.2014, pp.1-8

A. Mathee, H. Röllin, and J. Levin, Lead in paint: three decades later and still a hazard for African children?, Environ Health, vol.115, pp.321-323, 2007.

M. Mazzuca, A. Leroyer, and C. Gueudré, Facteurs d'imprégnation au plomb d'enfants résidant à proximité de sites métallurgiques du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais, Air Pur N°, vol.75, 2008.

W. Mckelvey, R. C. Gwynn, and N. Jeffery, A biomonitoring study of lead, cadmium, and mercury in the blood of New York City adults, Environ Health Persp, vol.115, pp.1435-1441, 2007.

J. S. Mclellan, P. R. Flanagan, and M. J. Chamberlain, Measurement of dietary cadmium absorption in humans, Toxicol Environ Health, vol.4, pp.131-138, 1978.

J. D. Meeker, M. G. Rossano, and B. Protas, Environmental exposure to metals and male reproductive hormones: circulating testosterone is inversely associated with blood molybdenum, Fertil Steril, vol.93, pp.130-140, 2010.

A. A. Melikian, M. V. Djordjevic, and J. Hosey, Gender differences relative to smoking behavior and emissions of toxins from mainstream cigarette smoke, Nicotine Tobacco Res, vol.9, pp.377-387, 2007.

C. M. Mena, C. Cabrera, and M. L. Lorenzo, Determination of lead contamination in Spanish wines and other alcoholic beverages by flow injection atomic absorption spectrometry, J Agric Food Chem, vol.45, pp.1812-1815, 1997.

J. Mendiola, J. M. Moreno, and M. Roca, Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in three different body fluids and male reproductive parameters: a pilot study, Environ Health, vol.10, p.6, 2011.

P. Mendola, K. Brett, and J. N. Dibari, Menopause and lead body burden among US women aged 45-55, NHANES 1999-2010, Environ Res, vol.121, pp.110-113, 2013.

S. A. Meo and T. Al-khlaiwi, Health hazards of welding fumes, Saudi Med J, vol.24, pp.1176-1182, 2003.

S. Millour, L. Noël, and A. Kadar, Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Sb and Al levels in foodstuffs from the 2nd French total diet study, Food Chem, vol.126, pp.1787-1799, 2011.

K. T. Mills, Y. Xu, and W. Zhang, A systematic analysis of worldwide population-based data on the global burden of chronic kidney disease in 2010, Kidney Int, vol.88, pp.950-957, 2015.

. Ministry and . Health, The Environmental Case Management of Lead-exposed Persons: Guidelines for Public Health Units: Revised, 2012.

A. Mitra, R. Chowdhury, and K. Banerjee, Concentrations of some heavy metals in commercially important finfish and shellfish of the River Ganga, Environ Monit Assess, vol.184, pp.2219-2230, 2012.

M. R. Moore, P. A. Meredith, W. S. Watson, D. J. Sumner, M. K. Taylor et al., The percutaneous absorption of lead-203 in humans from cosmetic preparations containing lead acetate, as assessed by whole-body counting and other techniques, Food Cosmet Toxicol, vol.18, pp.399-405, 1980.

F. Mor and S. Ceylan, Cadmium and lead contamination in vegetables collected from industrial, traffic and rural areas in Bursa Province, Turkey. Food Addit. Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, vol.25, pp.611-615, 2008.

M. E. Mortensen, L. Y. Wong, and J. D. Osterloh, Smoking status and urine cadmium above levels associated with subclinical renal effects in U.S. adults without chronic kidney disease, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.214, pp.305-310, 2011.

J. Morton, E. Tan, L. E. Cocker, and J. , Determination of 61 elements in urine samples collected from a non-occupationally exposed UK adult population, Toxicol Lett, vol.231, pp.179-193, 2014.

H. Muller, S. Regard, and N. Petriccioli, Traditional medicine: A rare cause of lead poisoning in Western countries, vol.2, p.250, 1000.

P. Muntner, A. Menke, and K. B. Desalvo, Continued decline in blood lead levels among adults in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, Arch Intern Med, vol.165, p.2155, 2005.

J. P. Myong, H. R. Kim, and D. Baker, Blood cadmium and moderate-to-severe glomerular dysfunction in Korean adults: analysis of KNHANES 2005-2008 data, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.85, pp.885-893, 2012.

L. R. Nacano, R. De-freitas, and F. Barbosa, Evaluation of seasonal dietary exposure to arsenic, cadmium and lead in schoolchildren through the analysis of meals served by public schools of Ribeirão Preto, Brazil, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.77, pp.367-374, 2014.

N. Naicker, S. Norris, and A. Mathee, Lead exposure is associated with a delay in the onset of puberty in South African adolescent females: Findings from the Birth to Twenty cohort, Sci Total Environ, vol.408, pp.4949-4954, 2010.

I. Narin, H. Colak, and O. Turkoglu, Heavy metals in black tea samples produced in Turkey, Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, vol.72, pp.844-849, 2004.

S. Natesan and V. Ranganathan, Content of various elements in different parts of the tea plant and in infusions of black tea from southern India, J Sci Food Agric, vol.51, pp.125-139, 1990.

A. Navas-acien, M. Tellez-plaza, and E. Guallar, Blood cadmium and lead and chronic kidney disease in US adults: A joint analysis, Am J Epidemiol, vol.170, pp.1156-1164, 2009.

A. N?dzarek, A. Tórz, and B. Karakiewicz, Pb) in coffee, Concentrations of heavy metals, vol.60, pp.623-627, 2013.

H. Needleman and D. Gee, Lead in petrol 'makes the mind give way, Lessons from health hazards, 2013.

T. A. Nguyen, A. Roudot, and D. P. Massin, Risk assessment of heavy metals in shellfish for the population in Nha Trang City, J Environ Health, vol.76, pp.56-64, 2014.

K. Doqi, Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, Classification and Stratification, Am J Kidney Dis, vol.39, issue.1, pp.1-266

G. F. Nordberg, B. A. Fowler, and M. Nordberg, Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 2015.

, Elsevier Online version, p.245

G. F. Nordberg, L. Gerhardsson, and M. M. Mumtaz, Interactions and Mixtures in Metal Toxicology, Handbook on the toxicology of metals, vol.II, 2015.

G. F. Nordberg, T. Kjellström, and M. Nordberg, Cadmium and Health. A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal, 1985.

G. F. Nordberg, K. Nogawa, and N. Monica, Cadmium. In Handbook on the toxicology of metals, vol.II, 2015.

G. F. Nordberg, S. Slorach, and T. Stenstrom, Cadmium poisoning caused by a cooled-soft-drink machine, Lakartidningen, vol.70, pp.601-604, 1973.

M. Nordberg, Studies on metallothionein and cadmium, Environ Res, vol.15, pp.381-404, 1978.

J. Nriagu, A history of global metal pollution, Science, vol.272, pp.223-224, 1996.

, Monograph on Health Effects of Low-Level Lead. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012.

K. O&apos;grady and A. Perron, Reformulating lead-based paint as a problem in Canada, Am J Public Health, vol.101, pp.176-187, 2011.

F. Ohashi, Y. Fukui, and S. Takada, Reference values for cobalt, copper, manganese, and nickel in urine among women of the general population in Japan, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.80, pp.117-126, 2006.

, Directives de l'OMS pour la qualité de l'eau de boisson. 2e édition, vol.1, pp.49-50, 1993.

C. Ong, L. Chua, and K. Teramoto, Biological monitoring of workers exposed to lead stearate, J Appl Toxicol, vol.10, pp.65-68, 1990.

C. Or?owski and J. K. Piotrowski, Biological levels of cadmium and zinc in the small intestine of nonoccupationally exposed human subjects, Hum Exp Toxicol, vol.22, pp.57-63, 2003.

F. Ortega, S. A. Counter, and L. H. Buchanan, Tracking blood lead and zinc protoporphyrin levels in Andean adults working in a lead contaminated environment, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.76, pp.1111-1120, 2013.

K. Osman, G. Elinder, and A. Schütz, Biomarkers of nephrotoxicity in children environmentally exposed to lead in Poland, J Environ Med, vol.1, pp.33-38, 1999.

O. Flores, I. Meyer-willerer, A. O. Olivos-ortiz, and A. , Lead in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei Boone in sublethal concentrations, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.77, pp.1084-1090, 2014.

M. A. Padilla, M. Elobeid, and D. M. Ruden, An examination of the association of selected toxic metals with total and central obesity indices: NHANES 99-02, Int J Environ Res Public Health, vol.7, p.3332, 2010.

D. J. Pain, R. L. Cromie, and J. Newth, Potential hazard to human health from exposure to fragments of lead bullets and shot in the tissues of game animals, PLoS One, vol.26, p.10315, 2010.

X. Pan, C. Ding, and Y. Pan, Distribution of copper and zinc in blood among general population from 8 provinces in China, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.48, pp.109-113, 2014.

X. Pan, C. Ding, and Y. Pan, Distribution of copper and zinc level in urine of general population in eight provinces of China, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.49, pp.919-923, 2015.

Y. Pan, C. Ding, and A. Zhang, Distribution of manganese, cobalt and molybdenum in blood and urine among general population in 8 provinces of China, Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi, vol.48, pp.784-790, 2014.

C. Park, M. Hwang, and H. Kim, Early snapshot on exposure to environmental chemicals among Korean adults-results of the first Korean National Environmental Health Survey, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.219, pp.398-404, 2009.

S. Park and B. Lee, Inverse relationship between fat intake and blood lead levels in the Korean adult population in the KNHANES, Sci Total Environ, vol.430, pp.161-166, 2007.

S. Park and B. K. Lee, Body fat percentage and hemoglobin levels are related to blood lead, cadmium, and mercury concentrations in a Korean adult population (KNHANES 2008-2010), Biol Trace Elem Res, vol.151, pp.315-323, 2013.

P. J. Parsons, A. A. Reilly, and D. Esernio-jenssen, Screening children exposed to lead: An assessment of the capillary blood lead fingerstick test, Clin Chem, vol.43, pp.302-311, 1997.

D. Paustenbach and D. Galbraith, Biomonitoring: is body burden relevant to public health? Regul, 2006.

, Toxicol Pharmacol, vol.44, pp.249-261

D. Paustenbach and D. Galbraith, Biomonitoring and biomarkers: exposure assessment will never be the same, Environ. Health Perspect, vol.114, pp.1143-1149, 2006.

N. Pawlas, U. Strömberg, and B. Carlberg, Cadmium, mercury and lead in the blood of urban women in Croatia, Int J Occup Med Environ Health, vol.26, pp.58-72, 2013.

A. Pelfrêne, C. Waterlot, and M. Mazzuca, Assessing Cd, Pb, Zn human bioaccessibility in smeltercontaminated agricultural topsoils (northern France), Environ Geochem Health, vol.33, pp.477-493, 2011.

B. Pérez-gómez, R. Pastor-barriuso, and M. Cervantes-amat, study protocol: rationale and design of a cross-sectional human biomonitoring survey in Spain, Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, vol.20, pp.1193-1202, 2013.

J. L. Pirkle, D. J. Brody, and E. W. Gunter, The decline in blood lead levels in the United States. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), J Am Med Assoc, vol.272, pp.284-291, 1994.

J. L. Pirkle, R. B. Kaufmann, D. J. Brody, and T. Hickman, Exposure of the US population to lead, Environ Health Persp, vol.106, p.745, 1991.

M. Pizzol, M. Thomsen, and M. S. Andersen, Long-term human exposure to lead from different media and intake pathways, Sci Total Environ, vol.408, pp.5478-5488, 2010.

A. Z. Pollack, S. L. Mumford, and P. Mendola, Kidney biomarkers associated with blood lead, mercury and cadmium in premenopausal women: A prospective cohort study, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.78, p.119, 2015.

H. Pottel, L. Hoste, and L. Dubourg, An estimated glomerular filtration rate equation for the full age spectrum, Nephrol Dial Transplant, vol.31, pp.798-806, 2016.

S. Prakash, G. T. Hernandez, and I. Dujaili, Lead poisoning from an Ayurvedic herbal medicine in a patient with chronic kidney disease, Nat Rev Nephrol, vol.5, pp.297-300, 2009.

J. Prignot, Quantification and chemical markers of tobacco-exposure, Eur J Respir, vol.70, pp.1-7, 1987.

M. B. Rabinowitz, K. J. , and W. G. , Effect of food intake and fasting on gastrointestinal lead absorption in humans, Am J Clin Nutr, vol.33, pp.1784-1788, 1980.

T. Rausch, L. Galsomiès, and Y. Martinet, Pollution atmosphérique par les métaux en France : 10 ans de biosurveillance des retombées, EDP Sciences, vol.178, 2013.

D. B. Reissman, T. D. Matte, and K. L. Gurnitz, Is home renovation or repair a risk factor for exposure to lead among children residing in New York City?, J Urban Health, vol.79, pp.502-511, 2002.

G. Rentschler, K. Broberg, and T. Lundh, Skerfving S. Long-term lead elimination from plasma and whole blood after poisoning, Int Arch Occup Environ Health, vol.85, pp.311-316, 2012.

P. A. Richter, E. E. Bishop, and J. Wang, Tobacco smoke exposure and levels of urinary metals in the U.S. youth and adult population: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004, Int J Environ Res Public Health, vol.6, pp.1930-1976, 2009.

P. A. Richter, E. E. Bishop, and J. Wang, Trends in tobacco smoke exposure and blood lead levels among youths and adults in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Prev Chronic Dis, vol.10, p.213, 1999.

M. L. Robles-osorio, I. N. Pérez-maldonado, M. Del-campo, and D. , Urinary arsenic levels and risk of renal injury in a cross-sectional study in open population, Rev Invest Clin, vol.64, pp.609-614, 2012.

G. H. Rocha, C. Steinbach, and J. R. Munhoz, Trace metal levels in serum and urine of a population in southern Brazil, J Trace Elem Med Biol, vol.35, pp.61-65, 2016.

I. Rodushkin and F. Odman, Assessment of the contamination from devices used for sampling and storage of whole blood and serum for element analysis, J Trace Elem Med Biol, vol.15, pp.40-45, 2001.

H. Roels, R. Lauwerys, and J. Konings, Occup. Environ. Renal function and hyperfiltration capacity in lead smelter workers with high bone lead, vol.51, pp.505-512, 1994.

M. Rose, M. Baxter, and N. Brereton, Dietary exposure to metals and other elements in the, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00608410

, UK Total Diet Study and some trends over the last 30 years, Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, vol.27, pp.1380-1404

C. Sass, J. J. Moulin, R. Guéguen, L. Abric, V. Dauphinot et al.,

E. Labbe, L. Rosa, E. Magnier, P. Martin, E. Royer et al., Le score Epices : un score individuel de précarité. Construction du score et mesure des relations avec des données de santé, dans une population de 197 389 personnes, BEH, issue.14, pp.93-96, 2006.

M. Salahinejad and F. Aflaki, Toxic and essential mineral elements content of black tea leaves and their tea infusions consumed in Iran, Biol Trace Elem Res, vol.134, pp.109-117, 2010.

A. Santos, S. Colacciopo, D. Bo, and C. , Occupational exposure to lead, kidney function tests, and blood pressure, Am J Ind Med, vol.26, pp.635-643, 1994.

A. Saoudi, A. Zeghnoun, and M. L. Bidondo, Urinary arsenic levels in the French adult population: the French National Nutrition and Health Study, Sci Total Environ, vol.433, pp.206-215, 2006.

R. B. Saper, S. N. Kales, and J. Paquin, Heavy metal content of ayurvedic herbal medicine products, Burns MJ, vol.292, pp.2868-2873, 2004.

J. Sauk, T. Smith, and E. Silbergeld, Toxicol. Lead inhibits secretion of osteonectin/SPARC, 1992.

J. F. Sauvé, M. Lévesque, and M. Huard, Creatinine and specific gravity normalization in biological monitoring of occupational exposures, J Occup Environ Hyg, vol.12, pp.123-129, 2015.

C. J. Schmitt, W. G. Brumbaugh, and G. L. Linder, A screening-level assessment of lead, cadmium, and zinc in fish and crayfish from Northeastern Oklahoma, USA, Environ Geochem Health, vol.28, pp.445-471, 2006.

G. Schoeters, E. D. Hond, and A. Colles, Concept of the Flemish human biomonitoring programme, 2012.

, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.102-108

M. Schuhmacher, M. Bellés, and A. Rico, Impact of reduction of lead in gasoline on the blood and hair lead levels in the population of Tarragona Province, Sci Total Environ, vol.184, p.203, 1990.

C. Schulz, J. Angerer, and U. Ewers, The German Human Biomonitoring Commission, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.210, pp.373-382, 2007.

C. Schulz, A. Conrad, and K. Becker, Twenty years of the German Environmental Survey (GerES): human biomonitoring--temporal and spatial (West Germany/East Germany) differences in population exposure, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.210, pp.271-297, 2007.

C. Schulz, M. Wilhelm, and U. Heudorf, Update of the reference and HBM values derived by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.150-158, 2012.

G. Schwalfenberg, S. J. Genuis, and I. Rodushkin, The benefits and risks of consuming brewed tea: beware of toxic element contamination, J Toxicol, p.370460, 2013.

F. Scinicariello, M. C. Buser, and M. Mevissen, Blood lead level association with lower body weight in NHANES 1999-2006, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, vol.273, pp.516-523, 2013.

A. Seeber, M. Meyer-baron, and M. Schäper, A summary of two meta-analyses on neurobehavioural effects due to occupational lead exposure, Arch. Toxicol, vol.76, pp.137-145, 2002.

S. Selevan, D. Rice, and K. Hogan, Blood Lead Concentration and Delayed Puberty in Girls, 2003.

, N Engl J Med, vol.348, pp.1527-1536

J. Seo, B. Kim, and Y. Kim, Trend of blood lead, mercury, and cadmium levels in Korean population: Data analysis of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Environ Monit Assess, vol.187, p.146, 2015.

R. Shelley, N. S. Kim, P. Parsons, and B. K. Lee, Associations of multiple metals with kidney outcomes in lead workers, Occup Environ Med, vol.69, pp.727-735, 2012.

J. Y. Shin, J. H. Lim, and S. G. Park, Influence of smoking on blood cadmium concentration in university students, J Prev Med Public Health, vol.37, pp.225-231, 2004.

S. Shinoda, Y. K. Nakagawa, and S. , Present status of Itai-Itai disease patients-Clinical findings by internal examination, Kankyo Hoken Report, vol.41, pp.44-52, 1977.

M. F. Shue, W. D. Chen, and L. M. Bellotindos, Seasonal variations of heavy metals content in muscle and viscera of green-lipped mussel Perna viridis from Da-Peng Bay Lagoon in Taiwan, J Toxicol Environ Health A, vol.77, pp.1222-1228, 2014.

E. K. Silbergeld, J. Sauk, and M. Somerman, Lead in bone: Storage site, exposure source, and target organ, Neurotoxicol, vol.14, pp.225-236, 1993.

S. Skerfving and I. A. Bergdahl, Lead, Handbook on the toxicology of metals, vol.II, 2015.

S. Skerfving, Criteria Documents From the Nordic Expert Group, 1993.

, Arbete och Hälsa 1. National Institute of Occupational Health, pp.125-235

J. Sommar, M. Hedmer, and T. Lundh, Investigation of lead concentrations in whole blood, plasma and urine as biomarkers for biological monitoring of lead exposure, J Exp Sci Environ Epidemiol, vol.24, pp.51-57, 2014.

J. Y. Son, J. Lee, and D. Paek, Blood levels of lead, cadmium, and mercury in the Korean population: results from the Second Korean National Human Exposure and Bio-monitoring Examination, Environ Res, vol.109, pp.738-744, 2009.

T. Sterckeman, F. Douay, and N. Proix, Vertical distribution of Cd, Pb and Zn in soils near smelters in the North of France, Environ Pollut, vol.107, pp.377-389, 2000.

T. Sterckeman, F. Douay, and N. Proix, Assessment of the contamination of cultivated soils by eighteen trace elements around smelters in the North of France, Water Air Soil Pollut, vol.135, pp.173-194, 2002.

M. C. Stockton, S. D. Mcmahon, and L. A. Jason, Gender and smoking behavior in a worksite smoking cessation program, Addict Behav, vol.25, pp.347-360, 2000.

B. Suseela, S. Bhalke, and A. V. Kumar, Daily intake of trace metals through coffee consumption in India, Food Addit Contam, vol.18, pp.115-120, 2001.

G. Syamlal, J. M. Mazurek, and S. R. Dube, Gender differences in smoking among U.S. working adults, 2014.

, Am J Prev Med, vol.47, pp.467-475

A. Szymczycha-madeja, M. Welna, and P. Pohl, Determination of essential and non-essential elements in green and black teas by FAAS and ICP OES simplified -multivariate classification of different tea products, Microchem J, vol.121, pp.122-129, 2015.

R. Tahvonen and J. Kumpulainen, Lead and cadmium in some berries and vegetables on the Finnish market in 1991-1993, Food Addit Contam, vol.12, pp.263-279, 1995.

J. Tallkvist, C. L. Bowlus, and B. Lonnerdal, DMT1 gene expression and cadmium absorption in human absorptive enterocytes, Toxicol Lett, vol.122, pp.171-177, 2001.

A. Teass, R. Biagini, and G. Debord, Application of Biological Monitoring Methods. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, NIOSH Publication Number, vol.154, 2003.

S. Telisman, B. Colak, and A. Pizent, Reproductive toxicity of low-level lead exposure in men, 2007.

, Environ Res, vol.105, pp.256-266

S. Telisman, A. Pzent, and J. Jurasovic, Lead effect on blood pressure in moderately lead-exposed male workers, Am J Ind Med, vol.45, pp.446-454, 2004.

S. Tsaih, J. Schwartz, and M. L. Lee, The independent contribution of bone and erythrocyte lead to urinary lead among middle-aged and elderly men: the normative aging study, Environ. Health Perspect, vol.107, pp.391-396, 1999.

L. J. Tsuji, B. C. Wainman, and I. D. Martin, Lead shot contribution to blood lead of First Nations People: The use of lead isotopes to identify the source of exposure, Sci Total Environ, vol.405, pp.180-185, 2008.

T. Turkbay, S. U. Sarici, and E. Kismet, Blood lead levels in glue sniffers, Biol Trace Elem Res, vol.98, pp.45-49, 2004.

, USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), 2014.

R. A. Vanderpool and P. G. Reeves, Cadmium Absorption in Women Fed Processed Edible Sunflower Kernels Labeled with a Stable Isotope of Cadmium, 113 Cd, Environ Res, vol.87, pp.69-80, 2001.

J. A. Vassalotti, R. Centor, and B. J. Turner, Practical Approach to Detection and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease for the Primary Care Clinician, Am J Med, vol.129, pp.153-162, 2015.

J. Vrijens, M. Leermakers, and M. Stalpaert, Trace metal concentrations measured in blood and urine of adolescents in Flanders, Belgium: Reference population and case studies Genk-Zuid and Menen, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.217, pp.515-527, 2014.

W. Waring, D. Webb, and S. Maxwell, Systemic uric acid administration increases serum antioxidant capacity in healthy volunteers, J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, vol.38, pp.365-371, 2001.

C. Waterlot, G. Bidar, and A. Pelfrene, Contamination, fractionation and availability of metals in urban soils in the vicinity of former lead and zinc smelters, Pedosphere, vol.23, pp.143-159, 2013.

R. C. Weast, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 1986.

V. Weaver, B. Jaar, and B. Schwartz, Associations among lead dose biomarkers, uric acid, and renal function in Korean lead workers, Environ Health Perspect, vol.113, pp.36-42, 2005.

V. Weaver, B. K. Lee, and K. D. Ahn, Occup. Environ. Associations of lead biomarkers with renal function in Korean lead workers, Med, vol.60, pp.551-562, 2003.

V. M. Weaver, D. J. Kotchmar, and J. J. Fadrowski, Challenges for environmental epidemiology research: are biomarker concentrations altered by kidney function or urine concentration adjustment?, J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, vol.26, pp.1-8, 2016.

V. M. Weaver, G. G. Vargas, and E. K. Silbergeld, Impact of urine concentration adjustment method on associations between urine metals and estimated glomerular filtration rates (eDFG) in adolescents, 2014.

, Environ Res, vol.132, pp.226-232

J. D. Weidenhamer, P. A. Kobunski, and G. Kuepouo, Lead exposure from aluminum cookware in Cameroon, Sci Total Environ, vol.496, pp.339-347, 2014.

M. Weyermann and H. Brenner, Alcohol consumption and smoking habits as determinants of blood lead levels in a national population sample from Germany, Arch Environ Health, vol.52, pp.233-239, 1997.

, WHO Air Quality Guide-lines for Europe, second ed. WHO Euro. www.who.int [last accessed, 2000.

, Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants, JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives) Sixty-first meeting Rome, pp.10-19, 2003.

, « Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health ». Fact sheet n°313, 2014.

F. Wu, P. Chang, and C. Wu, Correlations of blood lead with DNA-protein cross-links and sister chromatid exchanges in lead workers, Cancer Epid. Biomarkers Prev, vol.11, pp.287-290, 2002.

Y. Xie and D. E. Giammar, Effects of flow and water chemistry on lead release rates from pipe scales, 2011.

, Water Res, vol.45, pp.6525-6534

K. Yokoyama, S. Araki, and H. Sato, Circadian Rhythms of Seven Heavy Metals in Plasma, Erythrocytes and Urine in Men: Observation in Metal Workers, Ind Health, vol.38, pp.205-212, 2000.

R. K. Zalups and S. Ahmad, Molecular handling of cadmium in transporting epithelia, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, vol.186, pp.163-188, 2003.

W. Zhang, M. Dewolf, and S. Hammadi, Lead levels in umbilical cord blood in Belgium: A cross-sectional study in five maternity units, Int J Hyg Environ Health, vol.215, pp.202-205, 2012.

L. Zheng, C. C. Kuo, and J. Fadrowski, Arsenic and Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review, 2014.

, Curr Environ Health Rep, vol.1, pp.192-207

L. Y. Zheng, J. G. Umans, and F. Yeh, The association of urine arsenic with prevalent and incident chronic kidney disease: evidence from the Strong Heart Study, Epidemiology, vol.26, pp.601-612, 2015.

. Hbm-i, Human Biomonitoring Value I) : valeur fixée par la Commission Nationale allemande de permettent d'estimer qu'il n'y a pas de risque d'impact sur la santé

. Hbm-ii, valeur fixée par la Commission Nationale allemande de Biosurveillance ; elle correspond à la concentration d'IBE au-dessus de laquelle, on peut estimer en fonction des connaissances scientifiques du moment qu'il existe un risque pour la santé chez les individus de la population générale

, BAR (Biologischen Arbeitsstoff-Referenzwerte) : valeur établie par les hygiénistes allemands de la DFG chimique

, et fixé sur la base des connaissances scientifiques afin d'éviter, de prévenir ou de réduire les effets nocifs sur la santé humaine ou sur l'environnement dans son ensemble, Valeur limite d'exposition : niveau à atteindre dans un délai donné et à ne pas dépasser

, Box Plots de la distribution des logarithmes des niveaux moyens des métaux et métalloïdes selon le sexe, l'âge et le statut tabagique