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, Possible insertion sites for IVUS catheter: the femoral and radial arteries, p.26

, The positive envelope of each of the 1-D A-lines (RF lines) is obtained, stacked in the angular direction and presented in a 2-D gray-scale image to create polar B-mode IVUS images. For a more familiar representation, the polar B-mode IVUS is geometrically transformed to cartesian B-mode IVUS images that depict a cross-section of the artery, Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging modes

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, Contours (in red) of an idealized eccentric and circular plaque model (called plaque 1) in which the lesion is homogeneous. The palpography domain, ? palpo , is also given (blue contours). (b) Radial strain elastogram computed in the palpography domain. (c) Computed original (Céspedes et al. 2000) stress-strain modulus (S-SM) palpogram. (d) Comparisons between original S-SM, improved (Revisited) S-SM and averaged Young's modulus (AYM) palpograms, p.32, 2013.

, The boundaries of the palpography domain, ? palpo , are also given (blue contours). (b) Radial strain elastogram in the palpography domain. (c) Computed improved (Revisited) stress-strain modulus (S-SM) palpogram. (d) Comparisons between original S-SM (Céspedes et al. 2000), improved (Revisited) S-SM and averaged Young's modulus (AYM) palpograms. nc= necrotic core, fi= fibrous region. From Deleaval et al. (2013), Performance of the improved elasticity-palpography technique in detecting a vulnerable plaque with two necrotic cores. (a) Intravascular ultrasound image of plaque 2 with plaque constituents

, MST=Modified Sumi's transform; DWS= Dynamic watershed segmentation; RMS= Root mean square; PFEM= Parametric finite element model (see section 4.1 for more details), Phys. Med. Biol, vol.55, p.35, 2010.

, Performance of the elasticity reconstruction algorithm iMOD to characterize locally the mechanical properties of the homogeneous vessel phantom wall using experimental RF-IVUS images acquired with a Volcano Therapeutics REMORA IVUS system. a) IVUS image (the red contours delimit the boundaries of the vessel wall); b) cross-section image of the homogeneous cryogel vessel phantom

, This strain field results from two consecutive IVUS images recorded at a pressure of 0.25 kPa and 0.5 kPa, respectively; d) spatial pseudo-gradient elasticity field dW (Eq.1.19) resulting from the modified Sumi's transform (MST) procedure. Contours of the elastic heterogeneity domains were obtained thanks to the dynamic watershed segmentation (DWS) method; e) final Young's modulus map (or modulogram); f) resulting computed radial strain map obtained when performing a finite element simulation with the final modulogram presented in (e). Qualitatively, there is a noticeable good agreement between the PFEM-computed (f) and IVUS-measured (c) radial strain distributions, LSME radial strain field obtained by using the Lagrangian speckle model estimator (LSME), vol.55, pp.5701-5721, 2010.

, IVUS image; b) cross-section image of the heterogeneous cryogel vessel phantom; c) measured LSME radial strain field resulting from two consecutive IVUS images recorded pressures of 4 kPa and 4.5 kPa, respectively; d) spatial pseudo-gradient elasticity field with the potential contours of the elastic heterogeneity domains with contours of the elastic heterogeneity domains; e) final Young's modulus map (or modulogram); f) resulting computed radial strain map obtained when performing a finite element simulation with the final modulogram presented in (e). Qualitatively, there is a noticeable good agreement between the PFEM-computed (f) and IVUS-measured (c) radial strain distributions. Adapted from Le Floc'h, Performance of the elasticity reconstruction algorithm iMOD to characterize locally the mechanical properties of the heterogeneous vessel phantom wall with two soft inclusions using experimental RF-IVUS images acquired with a Volcano Therapeutics REMORA IVUS system. a), vol.55, pp.5701-5721, 2010.

, Performance of our elasticity reconstruction algorithm iMOD to characterize ex vivo the mechanical properties of a healthy aortic wall of a Watanabe rabbit (Rabbit # S2) using experimental RF-IVUS images acquired with a Boston Scientific GALAXY2 IVUS system. a) IVUS image (the red contours delimit the boundaries of the vessel wall); b) trichrome, haematoxylin, erythosine, safran (HES) staining of the healthy aortic wall where nucleus, cytoplasm and fibrosis are in blue

, 3 kPa and 2.23 kPa, respectively; d) spatial pseudo-gradient elasticity field dW (Eq.1.20) resulting from the modified Sumi's transform (MST) procedure. Contours of the elastic heterogeneity domains were obtained thanks to the dynamic watershed segmentation (DWS) method; e) final Young's modulus map (or modulogram); f) resulting computed radial strain map obtained when performing a finite element simulation with the final modulogram presented in (e), LSME radial strain field resulting from two consecutive IVUS images

, Performance of our elasticity reconstruction algorithm iMOD to characterize in vivo the mechanical properties of a human atherosclerotic plaque (patient # 9) using experimental RF-IVUS images acquired with a Boston Scientific GALAXY2 IVUS system. a) IVUS image (the red contours delimit the boundaries of the vessel wall); b) spatial distribution of the RF-correlation coefficient; c) measured LSME radial strain field obtained by using the Lagrangian speckle model estimator (LSME); d) spatial pseudo-gradient elasticity field dW (Eq.1.20) resulting from the modified Sumi's transform (MST) procedure. Contours of the elastic heterogeneity domains were obtained thanks to the dynamic watershed segmentation (DWS) method

, A four-criterion selection procedure for atherosclerotic plaque elasticity reconstruction based on in vivo coronary intravascular ultrasound radial strain sequences, Ultrasound in Med. & Biol, vol.38, issue.12, pp.2084-2097, 2012.

, Performance of our elasticity reconstruction algorithm iMOD to characterize in vivo the mechanical properties of a human atherosclerotic plaque (patient # 11) using experimental RF-IVUS images acquired with a Boston Scientific GALAXY2 IVUS system. a) IVUS image; b) spatial distribution of the RF-correlation coefficient; c) measured LSME radial strain field; d) spatial pseudo-gradient elasticity MST field with elastic heterogeneity domains; e) final Young's modulus map (or modulogram); f) computed radial strain map, Ultrasound in Med. & Biol, vol.38, issue.12, p.41, 2012.

, IVUS) b-mode image of a concentric atherosclerotic plaque, (B) luminal and media-adventitia borders delineated semi-automatically, (C) triangular meshes constructed by Delaunay triangulation, (D) IVUS elastogram for area strain, (E) corresponding histologic slice with Oil-red O staining (4X) showing lipid deposits and (F) corresponding histologic slice with pico-sirius staining by polarized light (4X) showing collagen. ROIs were outlined on histologic slices (E) and (F), p.45, 2011.

, The red square in image at time T (b) is the yellow tagged point in the original IVUS image (a), and this square will move to the location marked as the black square at time (T = ?T) (c). The predefined block size is M x M pixels, and the search window is N x N pixels, 2011.

. .. , 48 2.4 Diagram of the block-matching (BM) process for two successive IVUS b-mode images. CC: correlation coefficient

, First, a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is performed using the contours of the arterial geometry and the exact displacement maps Ux and Uy are computed. Then, using the Field II ultrasound simulation software, b-mode images of the plaque are synthesized. These images are used with the Block Matching (BM) algorithm to obtain the estimated displacement maps Ux and Uy. The points with a correlation higher than 0.9 are used to create a triangular element mesh that we call Zhang's mesh. Using Zhang's mesh and the Ux and Uy maps estimated with the BM algorithm, the Area Strain (AS) index is calculated for each element in the mesh. Finally, this estimated BM AS map is compared to the exact AS FEA map obtained using the FE Mesh and the exact FE Ux and Uy maps

, First, a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is performed using the contours of the arterial geometry and the exact displacement maps Ux and Uy are computed. Then, using the Field II ultrasound simulation software, b-mode images of the plaque are synthesized. These images are used with the Block Matching (BM) algorithm to obtain the estimated displacement maps Ux and Uy. The points with a correlation higher than 0.9 are used to create a triangular element mesh that we call Zhang's mesh. Using Zhang's mesh and the Ux and Uy maps estimated with the BM algorithm, the Area Strain (AS) index is calculated for each element in the mesh. Finally, this estimated BM AS map is compared to the exact AS FEA map obtained using the FE Mesh and the exact FE Ux and Uy maps

, First, a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is performed using the contours of the arterial geometry and the exact displacement maps Ux and Uy are computed. Then, using the Field II ultrasound simulation software, b-mode images of the plaque are synthesized. These images are used with the Block Matching (BM) algorithm to obtain the estimated displacement maps Ux and Uy. The points with a correlation higher than 0.9 are used to create a triangular element mesh that we call Zhang's mesh. Using Zhang's mesh and the Ux and Uy maps estimated with the BM algorithm, the Area Strain (AS) index is calculated for each element in the mesh. Finally, this estimated BM AS map is compared to the exact AS FEA map obtained using the FE Mesh and the exact FE Ux and Uy maps

, Contours of idealized concentric and eccentric plaques used to validate the theoretical background. L= lumen, fi= fibrosis

, IVUS images. L= lumen, fi= fibrosis, nc= necrotic core, df= dense fibrosis, h= healthy arterial tissue

, s IVUS image. From this plaque, three modeled contours were built (plaques 2A-C) where the cap thickness (Cap thick ) increases from 93 µm to 600µm. L= lumen, fi= fibrosis, nc= necrotic core

, Pressure was applied to the lumen boundary and the external boundary was left free. b) The edges corresponding to the four cardinal points were constrained in the circumferential direction and sliding conditions were imposed on the two cross-sections of the vessel segment

, Diagram for the process to obtain the spatial displacement and strain field distributions. First, the contours of the plaque constituents were extracted from IVUS images and used to create a 3-D model. A pressure gradient equivalent to the one between two IVUS frames was applied inside the lumen and the resulting radial strain distribution within the plaque was extracted

, Later, the Modified lagrangian speckle estimator (MLSME) technique was used to estimate the radial strain distribution ? RR (R, ?) , as it would do when applied directly to patient's RF data, This exact radial strain distribution was used as an input for the ultrasound simulation software Field II to obtain simulated RF IVUS frames

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique on idealized homogeneous concentric and eccentric plaque models (plaques 0 and 1, respectively). a,d) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps b,d) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c,f ) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?)

. .. , 65 3.7 Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique to detect vulnerable plaques with one necrotic core (plaques 12, 14 and 15). a, b, c) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the location of the necrotic core

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique to detect vulnerable plaques with two necrotic cores (plaques 16 and 17). a, d) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f ) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the locations of the two necrotic cores

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique to detect a stable plaque with one dense fibrosis inclusion (plaque 19). a) Plaque geometry (red contour), palpography domain (blue contour) and estimated radial strain map. b) IVUS images with AI-palpogram. c) Comparison between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. The area shaded in yellow indicates the location of the dense fibrosis inclusion. df = dense fibrosis

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique to detect a stable homogeneous fibrotic plaque (plaque 11) and a healthy coronary cross-section (healthy 1). a,d) Plaque/artery geometry (red contours), palpography domain (blue contours) and estimated radial strain map. b,e) IVUS image with the AI-palpogram. c,f ) Comparison between the exact and the estimated AI(?) palpograms

, Simulations were performed with plaque 2. a, c, e, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, d, f, h) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. i) Comparison between all estimated AI-palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the location of the necrotic core. fi = fibrotic plaque region. nc = necrotic core, Effect of Cap thick on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 0 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 2 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. The area shaded in yellow indicates the location of the necrotic core, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 12 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. The area shaded in yellow indicates the location of the necrotic core, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 13 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the location of the necrotic core, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 14 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the location of the necrotic core, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Simulations were performed with plaque 17 considering three palpography domain thicknesses. a, d, g) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the locations of the necrotic cores, Effect of the palpography domain size on the resulting anisotropic elasticity palpogram

, Sensitivity analysis revealing the influence of measurement window (MW) size on the computed AI index-palpogram for idealized homogeneous plaques 0 and 1. Four MW sizes were considered for these simulations: 75 x 15 pixels, p.101

, Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps obtained with the 101 x 21-pixel MW size. b, d) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms

, Sensitivity analysis revealing the influence of measurement window (MW) size on the computed AI index-palpogram for plaques with soft inclusions

, 121 x 31 pixels and 151 x 31 pixels. a, c) Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps obtained with the 101 x 21-pixel MW size. b, d) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the locations of the necrotic cores, Four MW sizes were considered for these simulations: 75 x 15 pixels, 101 x 21 pixels

, Sensitivity analysis revealing the influence of measurement window (MW) size on the computed AI index-palpogram for idealized homogeneous plaques 0 and 1. Four MW sizes were considered for these simulations: 75 x 15 pixels, p.101

, Plaque geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps obtained with the 101 x 21-pixel MW size. b, d) Comparisons between exact and estimated AI(?) palpograms. Areas shaded in yellow indicate the locations of the dense fibrosis inclusions. df= dense fibrosis

, A 3-dimensional plot showing the significant influence of two Young's modulus ratios k 1 = E ? /E R and k 2 = E Z /E R on the amplitude of the normalized elastic anisotropy index AI/E R for values of k 1 and k 2 between 0.5 and 2. The white circle represents the value of the normalized AI for an isotropic atherosclerotic lesion when E R = E ? = E Z (i.e k 1 = k 2 = 1)

, Temperature profile for one freeze-thaw cycle for PVA phantom fabrication. A total of 8 cycles were applied to each phantom

, Cross-sections of the three PVA anisotropic phantoms. b) Schematic drawing of the experimental setup used for IVUS acquisitions. The PVA phantom was placed on a water tank and pressurized using a water column and an automatic syringe pump during the ultrasound acquisitions

R. , ?. , and Z. ). , b)Diagram of a sample cut for the tensile tests, diagram showing the coordinate system, vol.87

, Phantom sample mounted on the Biotester 5000 test system (Cellscale, CA) for uniaxial tensile testing using the biorakes system. The green rectangles indicates the tracking box used to calculate the strain using the block matching algorithm, p.88

, Engineering stress vs strain curves obtained from all the uniaxial tests of (a) PH1, (b) PH2 and (c) PH3 for the longitudinal (blue) and circumferential (black) directions. The mean curves for each direction (circumferential and longitudinal) are shown in a darker color

, A cut in the radial direction was made to each of them and images were recorded before, right after and two hours after the radial cut. No change was observed, Pictures of the opening angle tests

, Phantom diagram showing the coordinate system used. b and c) Diagrams for cuts used to obtain samples for SEM that show the internal and external borders (plane ?-Z) and the cross-section (plane R-?) surfaces imaged with SEM. d-f) SEM images obtained from the d) internal, e) external and f) cross-sectional surfaces for each of the phantoms (PH1, PH2 and PH3) with a magnification of 500x. The planes for each surface are also given, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results. a)

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity palpogram using in vitro IVUS sequences of polyvinyl-alcohol cryogel vascular phantoms. a, d, g) Phantom geometries (red contours), palpography domains (blue contours) and estimated radial strain maps. b, e, h) IVUS images with AI-palpograms. c, f, i) Estimated AI(?) palpograms with mean ± standard variation values

A. .. , Mean anisotropic index (AI) value for each pressure step for phantoms PH1, PH2 and PH3. The bars indicate the standard deviation of AI at each pressure step. The first point, highlighted with a red dot, corresponds to the initial radio-frequency (RF) intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), p.97

F. Peter and . Ludman, Advance of a guide-wire to the lesion using X-ray and intermittent injection of radiographic constrast medium. c) A balloon catheter is slid over the guide-wire until it reaches the lesion site. d) Balloon inflation to compress plaque and restore blood flow. e) Instant elastic recoil. f) Stent placement to prevent further recoil and complications, Bottom: Model indicating the balloon film and internal and external catheters, vol.42, p.106, 2014.

, Picture of the compliance curve for the Boston Scientific's Maverick 2 PTCA. The nominal and rated burst pressures and diameters used to calculate the compliance of the balloon are given in this table

. Romagnoli, Bench test showing the different profiles between a noncompliant balloon (A) and a semi-compliant stent delivery balloon (B) during high-pressure (>14 atm) inflation. The semi-compliant balloon demonstrates a "dog bone" effect at the edge of the cylinder that can damage the vessel wall in vivo, JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions, vol.1, issue.1, pp.520-526, 2008.

, Top: Balloon blow molding process diagram

, Reprinted from David Chua et al. (2004), with permission from Elsevier. b) Geometrical model of a commercially available stent and part of the delivery system (inner shaft and non-tapered part of the folded balloon), 2008.

, Finite element simulation of the dilation of a Groentzig-type balloon catheter: (a) geometry and computational mesh of the undeformed (I) and deformed (II) configurations of the balloon and (b) applied internal balloon pressure P b versus external balloon diameter d e . Initially, the balloon expands quicklyand only a low internal pressure is needed for its deformation. As the pressure exceeds approximately1 bar, the balloon stiffens and deforms only slightly, p.109, 2008.

, 20 MPa), and the load was then held constant for 15 s. Three consecutive loading cycles (1A-3A) were performed, followed by a resting period of 1 h. Specimens were then loaded twice more (cycles 4B-5B) with a loading time of 10 min for the final cycle (5B). (a) Each device tested showed polymers creep within the 15-s loading time. (b) Stress-strain curves evidenced a progressive deformation of balloon materials, partially reabsorbed within 1-h resting time, 2006.

, Right: Compliance chart provide by the manufacturer (Boston Scientific) indicating a nominal diameter of 3.5 mm at a nominal pressure of 6 atm, and a burst pressure of 12 atm, Left, top: Deployed Maverick 2 balloon. Left, bottom: Diagram of the balloon catheter

, Thicknesses (t) and diameters ( ) of the internal and external catheters, and the balloon are also given. All measurements are in mm, Diagram of the balloon catheter indicating the main features and dimensions

, Images and measurements obtained from the catheters with the stereo microscope. a,b)Internal (green) and external (transparent) catheter diameters. c,d) Measurements of the internal catheter thickness. e,f) Measurements of the external catheter thickness

, Images of the balloon film obtained with a holographic microscope, the green arrow indicates the thickness of the film. Thickness measurements were carried out using ImageJ software

, diameter measurements were performed at three sites: (1)distal, (2) middle and (3)proximal. b) Balloon catheter diagram showing l z , the distance between the two radiopaque markers

, Inflation of a Boston Scientific Maverick 2 balloon catheter in air at ambient temperature. Three consecutive inflations to 20 atm were performed. The manufacturer curve (M) is also plotted. Compliance values for each curve are given in the table at the right, 2017.

, Three consecutive inflations, the first until 12 atm (the rated burst pressure for this balloon), the second until 20 atm and the third one until rupture (18 atm). The anufacturer compliance curve is also plotted (M), Boston Scientific Maverick 2 balloon catheter in air at ambient temperature, 2017.

, Inflation of a Boston Scientific Maverick 2 balloon catheter submerged in water at 37°C. Two consecutive inflations, the first two until 20 atm and the manufacturer compliance curve (M) are plotted. Compliance values for each curve are given in the table at the right. Adapted from Cellier (2017)

, Inflation of a Boston Scientific Maverick 2 balloon catheter in air at ambient temperature. Two successive inflations were performed on the balloon at T=0. Then, after T=16 hours, the same two inflations were repeated. This experiment highlights the viscoelastic properties of the balloon polymer film, 2017.

, Three consecutive inflations of a Boston Scientific Maverick 2 balloon catheter in air at ambient temperature. The pictures show a small enlargement in the longitudinal dimensions of the balloon due to the increase in pressure, 2017.

, Pressure was applied with a manual angioplasty balloon inflator, and it was monitored using a pressure sensor (0.1 bar resolution and a data acquisition card connected to a PC. Diameter was extracted (post-processing) from pictures taken using a camera attached to a stereo microscope

, Using ImageJ, the images were pre-processed to find the edges of the balloon. Finally, using Matlab, the diameter at each line (corresponding to a longitudinal position) and an average diameter were calculated for each image, p.120

, Diameter vs pressure results of the 8 consecutive inflations of the Maverick

, Diameter vs pressure results of inflations 1-4, 4-6 and 6-8 of the Maverick 2 balloon catheter. The instantaneous return points for each inflation are also included, p.122

, Images were acquired at a rate of 100 ms for 40 s during the creep (20 s) and recovery stages (20 s), Diameter vs pressure results of short-time creep test of the Maverick 2 balloon catheter

, 05 x 15 mm, that was cut in the circumferential and longitudinal directions (b). (c)The sample was mounted between two acrylic strips pasted to a base sheet, using an epoxy resin. This ensured the correct alignment of the sample. Once the sample was placed on the testing machine, both sides of the base sheet were cut

, The sample was mounted using mechanical grips. Bottom: Samples in the circumferential and longitudinal direction mounted on the machine. Graphite powder was added to surface of the sample to serve as markers to calculate the displacement with a digital image, Top: Biotester 5000 biaxial testing system used for the uniaxial tensile tests of the balloon polymer film

, Integrated image analysis module of the Labjoy software used to quantify the motions of image features. The tracking editor window allows the modification of the digital image correlation process parameters

, Resulting mean curves from balloon cyclic tensile tests in the circumferential (Circ) and longitudinal (Long) directions

, Resulting curves from balloon cyclic tensile tests in the circumferential and longitudinal directions

, The sample was mounted using mechanical grips. Bottom: Samples in the circumferential and longitudinal direction mounted on the machine. Graphite powder was added to surface of the sample to serve as markers to calculate the displacement with a digital image correlation post-process. ?= Poisson ratio; ? l = strain parallel to the uniaxial tension; ? t = strain perpendicular to the uniaxial tension, Top: Biotester 5000 biaxial testing system used for the uniaxial tensile tests of the balloon polymer film

, Left: Internal catheter sample undergoing tensile tension test in the Instron 3365 universal material testing machine. Right: Section of the internal catheter with double sided tape to help grip the sample

, Mean curves from tensile tests of the internal and external catheters under tensile tension at a constant displacement rate of 15 mm/min

, Top: Setup for the acquisition of high-speed video of the deployment and burst of the balloon catheter. Bottom: Images obtained from the bursting sequence, p.129

. .. , 2 Flow chart describing the procedure to find a solution, p.138

, Experimental data are indicated with red dots; the model prediction is represented by the black solid line

, Fit of stress-strain in the ? ? plane

. .. , Model prediction for the elastic (red) and visco-plastic (blue) strains, p.140

, Performance of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique algorithm to characterize ex vivo a healthy aortic wall of a Watanabe rabbit (Rabbit # S2) a) Vessel geometry (red contours), palpography domain (blue contour) and estimated LSME radial strain-elastogram. b) One IVUS image of the IVUS sequence with mean AI-palpogram. c) Mean estimated AI-palpogram with its standard deviation

D. , Experimental curves from ballon uniaxial tensile tests in the circumferential direction

, Experimental curves from ballon uniaxial tensile tests in the longitudinal direction, vol.156

, Experimental curves from uniaxial tensile tests of the internal catheter, p.156

, Experimental curves from uniaxial tensile tests of the external catheter, p.157

. Virmani, Pathophysiology of native coronary, vein graft and in-stent atherosclerosis, Nature Reviews Cardiology, vol.13, issue.2, p.22, 1990.

&. .. Zhang, 47 3.1 Characteristics of the IVUS-detected and modelled atherosclerotic plaques and healthy artery used to test the performance of the proposed anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique. Cap thick was randomly assigned (value in parentheses) when found to be under the limit of the B-mode spatial resolution obtained with the 40-MHz IVUS catheter (i.e., < 90µm), p.61

, Orthotropic and isotropic mechanical properties and anisotropy index values assigned for the healthy wall, fibrous plaque, dense fibrosis and soft necrotic core inclusions, p.61

M. Error and M. Error, Accuracy of the proposed anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique and effect of estimated radial strain-elastogram (computed with a measurement window size of (101 pixels x 21 pixels)) on the estimated AI-palpograms (see Eqs. 3.6 and 3.7 for definitions of the mean relative errors M R AI error

, Values for the exact (AI exact (?)) and estimated indexes with the exact (AI exact (?)) and estimated strain-palpograms(AI * (?))

, Effect of palpography domain thickness (? palpo = 0.75 mm, 1 mm and 1.25 mm) on the accuracy of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique. All palpograms were computed with a measurement window size of 101 pixels x 21 pixels, p.70

, Effect of measuring window (MW) size on the accuracy of the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique. All palpograms were computed with a palpography domain size ? palpo = 1mm

, Coefficients for the exponential curve fit of the uniaxial tension tests in the circumferential (C)(E ? ) and longitudinal (L)(E Z ) directions. The product ab corresponds to the initial Young's modulus

, The AFM values of PH1 in the circumferential (?) and longitudinal (Z) directions shown in parenthesis were obtained to compare them to TT results in the same direction and show a good agreement between them, Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and tensile tests (TT) results of the anisotropic phantoms PH1, PH2 and PH3

, Model AI is computed with the minimin (Min), average (Mean) and maximun (Max) experimentally obtained values for each of the Young's moduli (E R , E ? and E Z ) for phantoms PH1, PH2 and PH3. The initial RF IVUS AI is obtained applying the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique to the first frame of each phantom sequence, Anisotropic Index (AI) calculation using a model with incompressibility assumption

, 3) and mean Initial RF IVUS AI values computed with the anisotropic elasticity-palpography technique (AE-PT). The asterisk symbol indicates that the calculation of the tendency index is refered to PH3, Tendency indices of the mean Model AI values obtained with the model assuming incompressibility, p.96

. .. , Consecutive inflation protocol for a Maverick 2 balloon, p.121