F. Le-huche and A. Allali, Anatomie et physiologie des organes de la voix et de la parole. 2ème, 2001.

T. Similowski, Exploration de la fonction du diaphragme, EMC - Pneumologie, vol.1, issue.1, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S1155-195X(01)00043-3

R. Johnson, C. Hsia, and S. Takeda, Efficient design of the diaphragm: distribution of blood flow relative to mechanical advantage, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.53, issue.3, pp.925-930, 2002.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1982.53.1.280

B. Polla, D. Antona, G. Bottinelli, and R. , Respiratory muscle fibres: specialisation and plasticity, Thorax, vol.59, issue.9, pp.808-817, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.2003.009894

URL : http://thorax.bmj.com/content/thoraxjnl/59/9/808.full.pdf

M. Mizuno, Human respiratory muscles: fibre morphology and capillary supply, Eur Respir J, vol.4, pp.587-601, 1991.

M. Goldman, A. Grassino, and J. Mead, Mechanics of the human diaphragm during voluntary contraction: dynamics, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.44, issue.6, pp.840-848, 1978.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1978.44.6.840

T. Similowski, S. Yan, and A. Gauthier, Contractile Properties of the Human Diaphragm during Chronic Hyperinflation, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.325, issue.13, pp.917-923, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

L. Black and R. Hyatt, Maximal respiratory pressures: normal values and relationship to age and sex, Am Rev Respir Dis, vol.99, pp.696-702, 1969.

A. Multz, T. Aldrich, and D. Prezant, Maximal Inspiratory Pressure Is Not a Reliable Test of Inspiratory Muscle Strength in Mechanically Ventilated Patients, American Review of Respiratory Disease, vol.139, issue.3, pp.529-532, 1990.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI111841

J. Truwit and J. Marini, Validation of a Technique to Assess Maximal Inspiratory Pressure in Poorly Cooperative Patients, Chest, vol.102, issue.4, pp.1216-1219, 1992.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.102.4.1216

P. Caruso, C. Friedrich, and S. Denari, The Unidirectional Valve Is the Best Method To Determine Maximal Inspiratory Pressure During Weaning, Chest, vol.115, issue.4, pp.1096-1101, 1999.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.115.4.1096

F. Héritier, C. Perret, and J. Fitting, Maximal Sniff Mouth Pressure Compared with Maximal Inspiratory Pressure in Acute Respiratory Failure, Chest, vol.100, issue.1, pp.175-178, 1991.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.100.1.175

C. Laroche, A. Mier, and J. Moxham, The Value of Sniff Esophageal Pressures in the Assessment of Global Inspiratory Muscle Strength, American Review of Respiratory Disease, vol.137, issue.3, pp.598-603, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0007-0971(85)90047-6

W. Whitelaw and J. Derenne, Airway occlusion pressure, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.74, issue.4, pp.1475-1483, 1993.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1993.74.4.1475

E. Goligher, F. Laghi, and M. Detsky, Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility, reproducibility and validity, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.69, issue.Suppl 2, pp.642-649, 2015.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

M. Umbrello, P. Formenti, and D. Longhi, Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: a pilot clinical study, Critical Care, vol.76, issue.1, p.161, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/clpt.1981.18

E. Dinino, E. Gartman, and J. Sethi, Diaphragm ultrasound as a predictor of successful extubation from mechanical ventilation, Thorax, vol.65, issue.5, pp.423-427, 2014.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

G. Ferrari, D. Filippi, G. Elia, and F. , Diaphragm ultrasound as a new index of discontinuation from mechanical ventilation, Critical Ultrasound Journal, vol.6, issue.1, p.8, 2014.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.07-2200

W. Kim, H. Suh, and S. Hong, Diaphragm dysfunction assessed by ultrasonography: Influence on weaning from mechanical ventilation*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2627-2630, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182266408

J. Jiang, T. Tsai, and J. Jerng, Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Liver/Spleen Movements and Extubation Outcome, Chest, vol.126, issue.1, pp.179-185, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)32912-3

D. Matamis, E. Soilemezi, and M. Tsagourias, Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.5, pp.801-810, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822a55e9

E. Gottesman and F. Mccool, Ultrasound evaluation of the paralyzed diaphragm., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.1570-1574, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

N. Lerolle, E. Guérot, and S. Dimassi, Ultrasonographic Diagnostic Criterion for Severe Diaphragmatic Dysfunction After Cardiac Surgery, Chest, vol.135, issue.2, pp.401-407, 2009.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.08-1531

C. Roussos and P. Macklem, Diaphragmatic fatigue in man, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.43, issue.2, pp.189-197, 1977.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1977.43.2.189

F. Bellemare and A. Grassino, Effect of pressure and timing of contraction on human diaphragm fatigue, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.53, issue.5, pp.1190-1195, 1982.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1982.53.5.1190

T. Vassilakopoulos, C. Routsi, and C. Sotiropoulou, The combination of the load/force balance and the frequency/tidal volume can predict weaning outcome, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.15, issue.5, pp.684-691, 2006.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm/148.4_Pt_1.860

F. Laghi, S. Cattapan, and A. Jubran, Is Weaning Failure Caused by Low-Frequency Fatigue of the Diaphragm?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.167, issue.2, pp.120-127, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.38.8.616

F. Bellemare and A. Grassino, Evaluation of human diaphragm fatigue, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.53, issue.5, pp.1196-1206, 1982.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1982.53.5.1196

K. Yang and M. Tobin, A Prospective Study of Indexes Predicting the Outcome of Trials of Weaning from Mechanical Ventilation, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.324, issue.21, pp.1445-50, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199105233242101

A. Jubran and M. Tobin, Pathophysiologic basis of acute respiratory distress in patients who fail a trial of weaning from mechanical ventilation., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.3, pp.906-921, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.3.9117025

L. Appendini, A. Patessio, and S. Zanaboni, Physiologic effects of positive end-expiratory pressure and mask pressure support during exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.149, issue.5, pp.1069-76, 1994.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.149.5.8173743

S. Sahn and S. Lakshminarayan, Bedside Criteria for Discontinuation of Mechanical Ventilation, Chest, vol.63, issue.6, pp.1002-1005, 1973.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.63.6.1002

A. Jubran and M. Tobin, Passive mechanics of lung and chest wall in patients who failed or succeeded in trials of weaning., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.3, pp.916-921, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.3.9117026

A. Purro, L. Appendini, D. Gaetano, and A. , Physiologic Determinants of Ventilator Dependence in Long-term Mechanically Ventilated Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.7, issue.4, pp.1115-1123, 2000.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.152.3.7663780

M. Zambon, M. Greco, and S. Bocchino, Assessment of diaphragmatic dysfunction in the critically ill patient with ultrasound: a systematic review, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.49, issue.1, pp.29-38, 2017.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.49.5.500

P. Mayo, G. Volpicelli, and N. Lerolle, Ultrasonography evaluation during the weaning process: the heart, the diaphragm, the pleura and the lung, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.324, issue.8, 2016.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199105233242101

S. Levine, T. Nguyen, and N. Taylor, Rapid Disuse Atrophy of Diaphragm Fibers in Mechanically Ventilated Humans, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.358, issue.13, pp.1327-1335, 2008.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa070447

S. Hussain, M. Mofarrahi, and I. Sigala, Mechanical Ventilation???induced Diaphragm Disuse in Humans Triggers Autophagy, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.182, issue.11, pp.1377-1386, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/S1534-5807(04)00099-1

M. Zambon, P. Beccaria, and J. Matsuno, Mechanical Ventilation and Diaphragmatic Atrophy in Critically Ill Patients, Critical Care Medicine, vol.44, issue.7, pp.1347-1352, 2016.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0000000000001657

E. Goligher, E. Fan, and M. Herridge, Evolution of Diaphragm Thickness during Mechanical Ventilation. Impact of Inspiratory Effort, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.191, issue.9, pp.1080-1088, 2015.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9094

N. Latronico, F. Fenzi, and D. Recupero, Critical illness myopathy and neuropathy, The Lancet, vol.347, issue.9015, pp.1579-1582, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91074-0

N. Latronico and C. Bolton, Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis, The Lancet Neurology, vol.10, issue.10, pp.931-941, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70178-8

T. Vassilakopoulos and B. Petrof, Ventilator-induced Diaphragmatic Dysfunction, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.169, issue.3, pp.336-341, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00511.2002

S. Hussain, G. Simkus, and C. Roussos, Respiratory muscle fatigue: a cause of ventilatory failure in septic shock, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.58, issue.6, pp.2033-2040, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1985.58.6.2033

H. Silverman, M. Stanchina, A. Vieillard-baron, and T. Welte, Weaning from mechanical ventilation, Eur Respir J, vol.29, pp.1033-1056, 2007.

A. Demoule, B. Jung, and H. Prodanovic, Diaphragm Dysfunction on Admission to the Intensive Care Unit. Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prognostic Impact???A Prospective Study, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.2, pp.213-232, 2013.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

P. Hooijman, A. Beishuizen, and C. Witt, Diaphragm Muscle Fiber Weakness and Ubiquitin???Proteasome Activation in Critically Ill Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.89, issue.10, pp.1126-1164, 2015.
DOI : 10.1089/hum.2010.057

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4451621?pdf=render

F. Laghi, S. Cattapan, and A. Jubran, Is Weaning Failure Caused by Low-Frequency Fatigue of the Diaphragm?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.167, issue.2, pp.120-127, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.38.8.616

A. Watson, P. Hughes, L. Harris, and M. , Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic, esophageal, and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.7, pp.1325-1356, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00005

G. Hermans, A. Agten, and D. Testelmans, Increased duration of mechanical ventilation is associated with decreased diaphragmatic force: a prospective observational study, Critical Care, vol.14, issue.4, p.127, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9094

S. Jaber, B. Petrof, and B. Jung, Rapidly Progressive Diaphragmatic Weakness and Injury during Mechanical Ventilation in Humans, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.183, issue.3, pp.364-71, 2011.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.08-114249

J. Maher, F. Rutledge, and H. Remtulla, Neuromuscular disorders associated with failure to wean from the ventilator, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.139, issue.Suppl 3, pp.737-780, 1995.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm/139.2.513

T. Vassilakopoulos, S. Zakynthinos, and C. Roussos, The Tension???Time Index and the Frequency/ Tidal Volume Ratio Are the Major Pathophysiologic Determinants of Weaning Failure and Success, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.75, issue.2, pp.378-85, 1998.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm/142.2.474

G. Supinski and L. Callahan, Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, Critical Care, vol.17, issue.3, p.120, 2013.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0275OC

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/cc12792?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

A. Martin, A. Joseph, and T. Beaver, Effect of Intermittent Phrenic Nerve Stimulation During Cardiothoracic Surgery on Mitochondrial Respiration in the Human Diaphragm*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.42, issue.2, pp.152-158, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a63fdf

H. Masmoudi, C. Coirault, and A. Demoule, Can phrenic stimulation protect the diaphragm from mechanical ventilation-induced damage?, European Respiratory Journal, vol.42, issue.1, pp.280-283, 2013.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00045613

F. Laghi and H. Shaikh, Preventing Ventilator???Induced Diaphragmatic Dysfunction With Phrenic Nerve Stimulation*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.42, issue.2, pp.492-496, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0000000000000003

E. Dinino, E. Gartman, and J. Sethi, Diaphragm ultrasound as a predictor of successful extubation from mechanical ventilation, Thorax, vol.65, issue.5, pp.423-430, 2014.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

G. Ferrari, D. Filippi, G. Elia, and F. , Diaphragm ultrasound as a new index of discontinuation from mechanical ventilation, Critical Ultrasound Journal, vol.6, issue.1, p.8, 2014.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.07-2200

J. Jiang, T. Tsai, and J. Jerng, Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Liver/Spleen Movements and Extubation Outcome, Chest, vol.126, issue.1, pp.179-85, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)32912-3

W. Kim, H. Suh, and S. Hong, Diaphragm dysfunction assessed by ultrasonography: Influence on weaning from mechanical ventilation*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2627-2657, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182266408

E. Goligher, E. Fan, and M. Herridge, Evolution of Diaphragm Thickness during Mechanical Ventilation. Impact of Inspiratory Effort, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.191, issue.9, pp.1080-1088, 2015.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9094

S. Levine, T. Nguyen, and N. Taylor, Rapid Disuse Atrophy of Diaphragm Fibers in Mechanically Ventilated Humans, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.358, issue.13, pp.1327-1362, 2008.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa070447

E. Goligher, F. Laghi, and M. Detsky, Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility, reproducibility and validity, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.69, issue.Suppl 2, pp.642-651, 2015.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

B. Dubé, M. Dres, and H. Prodanovic, Reliability of diaphragm ultrasound to detect diaphragm dysfunction in critically ill patients, 4.1 Clinical respiratory physiology, exercise and functional imaging, p.4957, 2015.
DOI : 10.1183/13993003.congress-2015.OA4957

M. Dres, B. Dubé, and J. Mayaux, Coexistence and Impact of Limb Muscle and Diaphragm Weakness at Time of Liberation from Mechanical Ventilation in Medical Intensive Care Unit Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.86, issue.1, pp.57-66, 2017.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra1007236

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01458947

S. Cattapan, F. Laghi, and M. Tobin, Can diaphragmatic contractility be assessed by airway twitch pressure in mechanically ventilated patients?, Thorax, vol.58, issue.1, pp.58-62, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thorax.58.1.58

URL : http://thorax.bmj.com/content/thoraxjnl/58/1/58.full.pdf

G. Mills, D. Kyroussis, and C. Hamnegard, Bilateral magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves from an anterolateral approach., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.4, pp.1099-105, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887614

M. Polkey, D. Kyroussis, and C. Hamnegard, Diaphragm strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.5, pp.1310-1317, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912741

D. Matamis, E. Soilemezi, and M. Tsagourias, Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.5, pp.801-811, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822a55e9

M. Levy, M. Fink, and J. Marshall, 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference, ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference, pp.530-538, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200111000-00002

H. Grosu, Y. Lee, and J. Lee, Diaphragm Muscle Thinning in Patients Who Are Mechanically Ventilated, Chest, vol.142, issue.6, pp.1455-60, 2012.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.11-1638

A. Boon, C. Harper, and L. Ghahfarokhi, Two-dimensional ultrasound imaging of the diaphragm: Quantitative values in normal subjects, Muscle & Nerve, vol.24, issue.6, pp.884-893, 2013.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02012733

E. Summerhill, Y. El-sameed, and T. Glidden, Monitoring Recovery From Diaphragm Paralysis With Ultrasound, Chest, vol.133, issue.3, pp.737-780, 2008.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.07-2200

Y. Yoshioka, A. Ohwada, and M. Sekiya, Ultrasonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Respirology, vol.52, issue.2, pp.304-311, 2007.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

E. Gottesman and F. Mccool, Ultrasound evaluation of the paralyzed diaphragm., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.1570-1574, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

P. Bruin, J. Ueki, and A. Bush, Diaphragm thickness and inspiratory strength in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Thorax, vol.52, issue.5, pp.474-479, 1997.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.52.5.472

B. Jung, P. Moury, and M. Mahul, Diaphragmatic dysfunction in patients with ICU-acquired weakness and its impact on extubation failure, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.853-61, 2016.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01780240

G. Supinski, P. Westgate, and L. Callahan, Correlation of maximal inspiratory pressure to transdiaphragmatic twitch pressure in intensive care unit patients, Critical Care, vol.518, issue.Pt 3, pp.1-15, 2016.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.102.4.1216

E. Vivier, M. Dessap, A. Dimassi, and S. , Diaphragm ultrasonography to estimate the work of breathing during non-invasive ventilation, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.5, pp.796-803, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/s11604-010-0552-8

M. Umbrello, P. Formenti, and D. Longhi, Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: a pilot clinical study Tracheal tube pressure change during magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves as an indicator of diaphragm strength on the intensive care unit, Crit Care Br J Anaesth, vol.1987, pp.161876-84, 2001.

M. Elkins and R. Dentice, Inspiratory muscle training facilitates weaning from mechanical ventilation among patients in the intensive care unit: a systematic review, Journal of Physiotherapy, vol.61, issue.3, pp.125-159, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jphys.2015.05.016

S. Reynolds, R. Meyyappan, and V. Thakkar, Mitigation of Ventilator-Induced Diaphragm Atrophy by Transvenous Phrenic Nerve Stimulation, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.195, pp.339-387, 2017.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.201502-0363OC

B. Dube and J. Mayaux, Coexistence and Impact of Limb Muscle and Diaphragm Weakness at Time of Liberation From Mechanical Ventilation in Medical ICU Patients, Critical care References 1. Dres M, pp.10-1164, 2016.

A. Watson, P. Hughes, L. Harris, and M. , Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic, esophageal, and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.7, pp.1325-1356, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00005

S. Cattapan, F. Laghi, and M. Tobin, Can diaphragmatic contractility be assessed by airway twitch pressure in mechanically ventilated patients?, Thorax, vol.58, issue.1, pp.58-62, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thorax.58.1.58

G. Mills, D. Kyroussis, and C. Hamnegard, Bilateral magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves from an anterolateral approach., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.4, pp.1099-105, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887614

A. Demoule, B. Jung, and H. Prodanovic, Diaphragm Dysfunction on Admission to the Intensive Care Unit. Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prognostic Impact???A Prospective Study, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.2, pp.213-222, 2013.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

G. Supinski and L. Callahan, Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, Critical Care, vol.17, issue.3, pp.120-130, 2013.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0275OC

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/cc12792?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

M. Polkey, D. Kyroussis, and C. Hamnegard, Diaphragm strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.5, pp.1310-1317, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912741

D. Matamis, E. Soilemezi, and M. Tsagourias, Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.5, pp.134-147, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822a55e9

M. Levy, M. Fink, and J. Marshall, 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.4, pp.530-538, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200111000-00002

P. Hooijman, A. Beishuizen, and C. Witt, Diaphragm Muscle Fiber Weakness and Ubiquitin???Proteasome Activation in Critically Ill Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.89, issue.10, pp.1126-1164, 2015.
DOI : 10.1089/hum.2010.057

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4451621?pdf=render

F. Laghi, S. Cattapan, and A. Jubran, Is Weaning Failure Caused by Low-Frequency Fatigue of the Diaphragm?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.167, issue.2, pp.120-7200210, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.38.8.616

R. 1. Boles, J. Bion, J. Connors, A. Herridge, M. Marsh et al., Weaning from mechanical ventilation, European Respiratory Journal, vol.29, issue.5, pp.1033-1056, 2007.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00010206

M. Tobin and A. Jubran, Weaning from mechanical ventilation Principles and practice of mechanical ventilation, pp.1185-1220, 2006.

J. Barwing, M. Ambold, N. Linden, M. Quintel, and O. Moerer, Evaluation of the catheter positioning for neurally adjusted ventilatory assist, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.8, issue.10, pp.1809-1814, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(86)90837-8

C. Sinderby, J. Beck, L. Lindstrom, and A. Grassino, Enhancement of signal quality in esophageal recordings of diaphragm EMG, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.79, issue.4, pp.1370-1377, 1997.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1995.79.5.1803

C. Sinderby, J. Beck, J. Spahija, J. Weinberg, and A. Grassino, Voluntary activation of the human diaphragm in health and disease, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.79, issue.6, pp.2146-2158, 1998.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.156.1.9608113

C. Sinderby, J. Spahija, J. Beck, D. Kaminski, S. Yan et al., Diaphragm Activation during Exercise in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.83, issue.7, pp.1637-1641, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.4.2005121

J. Beck, C. Sinderby, L. Lindstrom, and A. Grassino, Effects of lung volume on diaphragm EMG signal strength during voluntary contractions, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.51, issue.3, pp.1123-1134, 1998.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1981.51.4.963

R. Vt, min -1 .l -1 Success 60 (42-90) * 56 (42-78) * 55 (41-74) * 54 (42-82) * 57 (42-74) * Failure, pp.74-12377

/. Eadi-max and . Vt, l -1 Success 22 (13-49) * 24 (13-36) * 24 (13-44) * 22 (13-50) * 22 (16-58) * Failure, pp.28-10628

S. Matecki, A. Duguet, T. Similowski, and S. Jaber, Diaphragm dysfunction on admission to the intensive care unit. Prevalence, risk factors, and prognostic impact-a prospective study, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, vol.188, pp.213-222, 2013.

M. Dres, B. Dubé, J. Mayaux, J. Delemazure, D. Reuter et al., Coexistence and Impact of Limb Muscle and Diaphragm Weakness at Time of Liberation from Mechanical Ventilation in Medical Intensive Care Unit Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.86, issue.1, pp.57-66, 2017.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra1007236

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01458947

W. Kim, H. Suh, S. Hong, Y. Koh, and C. Lim, Diaphragm dysfunction assessed by ultrasonography: Influence on weaning from mechanical ventilation*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2627-2657, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182266408

B. Jung, P. Moury, M. Mahul, A. Jong, . De et al., Diaphragmatic dysfunction in patients with ICU-acquired weakness and its impact on extubation failure, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.853-61, 2016.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01780240

S. Jaber, B. Jung, S. Matecki, and B. Petrof, Clinical review: Ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction - human studies confirm animal model findings!, Critical Care, vol.15, issue.2, p.206, 2011.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00091108

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/cc10023?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

J. Jiang, T. Tsai, J. Jerng, C. Yu, H. Wu et al., Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Liver/Spleen Movements and Extubation Outcome, Chest, vol.126, issue.1, pp.179-85, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)32912-3

A. Watson, P. Hughes, L. Harris, M. Hart, N. Ware et al., Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic, esophageal, and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.7, pp.1325-1356, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00005

G. Mills, D. Kyroussis, C. Hamnegard, M. Polkey, M. Green et al., Bilateral magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves from an anterolateral approach., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.4
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887614

G. Mills, J. Ponte, C. Hamnegard, D. Kyroussis, M. Polkey et al., Tracheal tube pressure change during magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves as an indicator of diaphragm strength on the intensive care unit, British Journal of Anaesthesia, vol.87, issue.6, pp.876-84, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/bja/87.6.876

S. Jaber, B. Petrof, B. Jung, G. Chanques, J. Berthet et al., Rapidly Progressive Diaphragmatic Weakness and Injury during Mechanical Ventilation in Humans, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.183, issue.3, pp.364-71, 2011.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.08-114249

E. Dinino, E. Gartman, J. Sethi, and F. Mccool, Diaphragm ultrasound as a predictor of successful extubation from mechanical ventilation, Thorax, vol.65, issue.5, pp.423-430, 2014.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

K. Yang and M. Tobin, A Prospective Study of Indexes Predicting the Outcome of Trials of Weaning from Mechanical Ventilation, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.324, issue.21, pp.1445-50, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199105233242101

B. Dubé, M. Dres, J. Mayaux, S. Demiri, T. Similowski et al., Ultrasound evaluation of diaphragm function in mechanically ventilated patients: comparison to phrenic stimulation and prognostic implications, Thorax, vol.195, issue.59, 2017.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-209459

J. Boles, J. Bion, A. Connors, M. Herridge, B. Marsh et al., Weaning from mechanical ventilation, European Respiratory Journal, vol.29, issue.5, pp.1033-56, 2007.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00010206

G. Supinski, L. Callahan, T. Similowski, S. Yan, A. Gauthier et al., Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients Contractile properties of the human diaphragm during chronic hyperinflation, Crit Care Lond Engl N Engl J Med, vol.17, issue.325, pp.917-940, 1991.

A. Thille, F. Boissier, H. Ben-ghezala, K. Razazi, A. Mekontso-dessap et al., Easily identified at-risk patients for extubation failure may benefit from noninvasive ventilation: a prospective before-after study group: STARD 2015: updated reporting guidelines for all diagnostic accuracy studies, DL: Comparing the areas under two or more correlated receiver operating characteristic curves: a nonparametric approach, pp.48-19837, 1988.

F. Laghi, S. Cattapan, A. Jubran, S. Parthasarathy, P. Warshawsky et al., Is Weaning Failure Caused by Low-Frequency Fatigue of the Diaphragm?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.167, issue.2, pp.120-127, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.38.8.616

E. Manders, P. Bonta, J. Kloek, P. Symersky, H. Bogaard et al., Reduced force of diaphragm muscle fibers in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.14, issue.1, pp.20-28, 2016.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.127.5.1637

R. Kelley and L. Ferreira, Diaphragm abnormalities in heart failure and aging: mechanisms and integration of cardiovascular and respiratory pathophysiology, Heart Failure Reviews, vol.285, issue.4, pp.191-207, 2017.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpcell.00129.2003

A. Topeli, F. Laghi, and M. Tobin, Can Diaphragmatic Contractility be Assessed by Twitch Airway Pressures in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.81, issue.4
DOI : 10.1063/1.362972

D. Adler, E. Dupuis-lozeron, J. Richard, J. Janssens, and L. Brochard, Does Inspiratory Muscle Dysfunction Predict Readmission after Intensive Care Unit Discharge?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.10, issue.3, pp.347-50, 2014.
DOI : 10.1186/cc10081

C. Medrinal, G. Prieur, É. Frenoy, R. Quesada, A. Poncet et al., Respiratory weakness after mechanical ventilation is associated with one-year mortality -a prospective study Assessment of diaphragmatic dysfunction in the critically ill patient with ultrasound: a systematic review, Crit Care Lond Engl Intensive Care Med, vol.20, issue.43, pp.29-38, 2016.

D. Matamis, E. Soilemezi, M. Tsagourias, E. Akoumianaki, S. Dimassi et al., Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.5, pp.801-811, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822a55e9

S. Spadaro, S. Grasso, T. Mauri, D. Corte, F. Alvisi et al., Can diaphragmatic ultrasonography performed during the T-tube trial predict weaning failure? The role of diaphragmatic rapid shallow breathing index, Diaphragmatic Thickness During the Respiratory Cycle Predicts Extubation Success at Various Levels of Pressure Support Ventilation, pp.305-30519, 2016.
DOI : 10.1007/s12028-008-9130-7

G. Ferrari, D. Filippi, G. Elia, F. Panero, F. Volpicelli et al., Diaphragm ultrasound as a new index of discontinuation from mechanical ventilation, Critical Ultrasound Journal, vol.6, issue.1, p.8, 2014.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.07-2200

M. Umbrello, P. Formenti, D. Longhi, A. Galimberti, I. Piva et al., Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: a pilot clinical study, Critical Care, vol.76, issue.1, pp.69-9259, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/clpt.1981.18

J. Boles, J. Bion, A. Connors, M. Herridge, B. Marsh et al., Weaning from mechanical ventilation, European Respiratory Journal, vol.29, issue.5
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00010206

A. Demoule, B. Jung, H. Prodanovic, N. Molinari, G. Chanques et al., Diaphragm Dysfunction on Admission to the Intensive Care Unit. Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prognostic Impact???A Prospective Study, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.2, pp.213-222, 2013.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

G. Mills, J. Ponte, C. Hamnegard, D. Kyroussis, M. Polkey et al., Tracheal tube pressure change during magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves as an indicator of diaphragm strength on the intensive care unit, British Journal of Anaesthesia, vol.87, issue.6, pp.876-84, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/bja/87.6.876

G. Supinski and L. Callahan, Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, Critical Care, vol.17, issue.3, p.120, 2013.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0275OC

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/cc12792?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

G. Mills, D. Kyroussis, C. Hamnegard, M. Polkey, M. Green et al., Bilateral magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves from an anterolateral approach., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.4, pp.1099-105, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887614

A. Watson, P. Hughes, L. Harris, M. Hart, N. Ware et al., Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic, esophageal, and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.7, pp.1325-1356, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00005

M. Dres, B. Dubé, J. Mayaux, J. Delemazure, D. Reuter et al., Coexistence and Impact of Limb Muscle and Diaphragm Weakness at Time of Liberation from Mechanical Ventilation in Medical Intensive Care Unit Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.86, issue.1, pp.57-66, 2017.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra1007236

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01458947

E. Goligher, F. Laghi, M. Detsky, P. Farias, A. Murray et al., Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility, reproducibility and validity, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.69, issue.Suppl 2, pp.642-651, 2015.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

D. Matamis, E. Soilemezi, M. Tsagourias, E. Akoumianaki, S. Dimassi et al., Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.5, pp.801-811, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822a55e9

F. Laghi, S. Cattapan, and A. Jubran, Is Weaning Failure Caused by Low-Frequency Fatigue of the Diaphragm?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.167, issue.2, pp.120-127, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.38.8.616

A. Demoule, B. Jung, and H. Prodanovic, Diaphragm Dysfunction on Admission to the Intensive Care Unit. Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Prognostic Impact???A Prospective Study, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.2, pp.213-219, 2013.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

B. Jung, P. Moury, and M. Mahul, Diaphragmatic dysfunction in patients with ICU-acquired weakness and its impact on extubation failure, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.853-861, 2016.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01780240

S. Jaber, B. Petrof, and J. B. , Rapidly Progressive Diaphragmatic Weakness and Injury during Mechanical Ventilation in Humans, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.183, issue.3, pp.364-371, 2011.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.08-114249

M. Dres, B. Dubé, and J. Mayaux, Coexistence and Impact of Limb Muscle and Diaphragm Weakness at Time of Liberation from Mechanical Ventilation in Medical Intensive Care Unit Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.86, issue.1, pp.57-66, 2017.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra1007236

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01458947

T. Vassilakopoulos and B. Petrof, Ventilator-induced Diaphragmatic Dysfunction, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.169, issue.3, pp.336-341, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00511.2002

A. Gauthier, S. Verbanck, and M. Estenne, Three-dimensional reconstruction of the in vivo human diaphragm shape at different lung volumes, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.76, issue.2, pp.495-506, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1994.76.2.495

A. Watson, P. Hughes, L. Harris, and M. , Measurement of twitch transdiaphragmatic, esophageal, and endotracheal tube pressure with bilateral anterolateral magnetic phrenic nerve stimulation in patients in the intensive care unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.7, pp.1325-1331, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00005

G. Bellani, T. Mauri, and A. Coppadoro, Estimation of Patient???s Inspiratory Effort From the Electrical Activity of the Diaphragm*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.41, issue.6, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827caba0

M. Dres, M. Schmidt, and A. Ferre, Diaphragm electromyographic activity as a predictor of weaning failure, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.73, issue.12, pp.2017-2025, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/0002-9343(82)90711-2

J. Ueki, D. Bruin, P. Pride, and N. , In vivo assessment of diaphragm contraction by ultrasound in normal subjects., Thorax, vol.50, issue.11, pp.1157-1161, 1995.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.50.11.1157

E. Goligher, F. Laghi, and M. Detsky, Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: feasibility, reproducibility and validity, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.69, issue.Suppl 2, pp.642-649, 2015.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

E. Vivier, M. Dessap, A. Dimassi, and S. , Diaphragm ultrasonography to estimate the work of breathing during non-invasive ventilation, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.29, issue.5, pp.796-803, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/s11604-010-0552-8

E. Gottesman and F. Mccool, Ultrasound evaluation of the paralyzed diaphragm., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.1570-1574, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

B. Dubé, M. Dres, and J. Mayaux, Ultrasound evaluation of diaphragm function in mechanically ventilated patients: comparison to phrenic stimulation and prognostic implications, Thorax, vol.195, issue.59, pp.10-1136, 2017.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-209459

W. Kim, H. Suh, and S. Hong, Diaphragm dysfunction assessed by ultrasonography: Influence on weaning from mechanical ventilation*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2627-2630, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182266408

C. Hamnegåard, S. Wragg, and D. Kyroussis, Mouth pressure in response to magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves., Thorax, vol.50, issue.6, pp.620-624, 1995.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.50.6.620

G. Supinski and L. Callahan, Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, Critical Care, vol.17, issue.3, pp.10-1186, 2013.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0275OC

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/cc12792?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

J. Jiang, T. Tsai, and J. Jerng, Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Liver/Spleen Movements and Extubation Outcome, Chest, vol.126, issue.1, pp.179-185, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)32912-3

N. Latronico and C. Bolton, Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis, The Lancet Neurology, vol.10, issue.10, pp.931-94110, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70178-8

E. Fan, F. Cheek, and L. Chlan, An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline: The Diagnosis of Intensive Care Unit???acquired Weakness in Adults, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.79, issue.12, pp.1437-1446, 2014.
DOI : 10.1212/01.WNL.0000055091.96905.D0

N. Latronico, M. Herridge, and R. Hopkins, The ICM research agenda on intensive care unit-acquired weakness, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.594, issue.25, pp.134-151, 2017.
DOI : 10.1113/JP271973

Z. Puthucheary, J. Rawal, and M. Mcphail, Acute skeletal muscle wasting in critical illness, JAMA, vol.310, 2013.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.2013.278481

URL : http://jama.jamanetwork.com/data/journals/jama/928054/joi130065.pdf

B. De-jonghe, T. Sharshar, and J. Lefaucheur, Paresis Acquired in the Intensive Care Unit<SUBTITLE>A Prospective Multicenter Study</SUBTITLE>, JAMA, vol.288, issue.22, pp.2859-2867, 2002.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.288.22.2859

B. Polla, D. Antona, G. Bottinelli, R. Reggiani, and C. , Respiratory muscle fibres: specialisation and plasticity, Thorax, vol.59, issue.9, pp.808-817009894, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.2003.009894

URL : http://thorax.bmj.com/content/thoraxjnl/59/9/808.full.pdf

S. Mrozek, B. Jung, and B. Petrof, Rapid Onset of Specific Diaphragm Weakness in a Healthy Murine Model of Ventilator-induced Diaphragmatic Dysfunction, Anesthesiology, vol.117, issue.3, pp.560-567, 2012.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0b013e318261e7f8

S. Levine, T. Nguyen, and N. Taylor, Rapid Disuse Atrophy of Diaphragm Fibers in Mechanically Ventilated Humans, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.358, issue.13, pp.1327-1335, 2008.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa070447

F. Laghi and M. Tobin, Disorders of the Respiratory Muscles, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.168, issue.1, 2003.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.97.10092147

O. Friedrich, M. Reid, and G. Van-den-berghe, The Sick and the Weak: Neuropathies/Myopathies in the Critically Ill, Physiological Reviews, vol.49, issue.3, pp.1025-1109, 2015.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/110.4.819

D. Jong, A. Carreira, S. , and N. N. , Diaphragmatic function is enhanced in fatty and diabetic fatty rats, PLOS ONE, vol.20, issue.1, 2017.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0174043.s003

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01502168

G. Juan, P. Calverley, and C. Talamo, Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Diaphragmatic Function in Human Beings, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.310, issue.14, pp.874-879, 1984.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM198404053101402

G. Rafferty, L. Harris, M. Polkey, and M. , Effect of Hypercapnia on Maximal Voluntary Ventilation and Diaphragm Fatigue in Normal Humans, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.58, issue.5, pp.1567-1571, 1999.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-097X.1981.tb00916.x

M. Mador, T. Wendel, and T. Kufel, Effect of acute hypercapnia on diaphragmatic and limb muscle contractility., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.155, issue.5, pp.1590-1595, 1997.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154862

P. Michelet, S. Carreira, and A. Demoule, Effects of Acute Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis on Diaphragm Muscle Obtained from Rats, Anesthesiology, vol.122, issue.4, pp.876-883, 2015.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000574

M. Aubier, T. Trippenbach, and C. Roussos, Respiratory muscle fatigue during cardiogenic shock, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.51, issue.2, pp.499-508, 1981.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1981.51.2.499

M. Aubier, N. Viires, and G. Syllie, Respiratory muscle contribution to lactic acidosis in low cardiac output, Am Rev Respir Dis, vol.126, pp.648-652, 1982.

N. Viires, G. Sillye, and M. Aubier, Regional blood flow distribution in dog during induced hypotension and low cardiac output. Spontaneous breathing versus artificial ventilation., Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.72, issue.3, pp.935-947, 1983.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI111065

URL : http://www.jci.org/articles/view/111065/files/pdf

S. Hussain, G. Simkus, and C. Roussos, Respiratory muscle fatigue: a cause of ventilatory failure in septic shock, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.58, issue.6, pp.2033-2040, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1985.58.6.2033

A. Leon, J. Boczkowski, and B. Dureuil, Effects of endotoxic shock on diaphragmatic function in mechanically ventilated rats, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.72, issue.4, pp.1466-1472, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.4.1466

J. Boczkowski, B. Dureuil, and C. Branger, Effects of Sepsis on Diaphragmatic Function in Rats, American Review of Respiratory Disease, vol.61, issue.2, pp.260-265, 1988.
DOI : 10.1097/00005373-198009000-00008

S. Lanone, C. Taillé, J. Boczkowski, and M. Aubier, Diaphragmatic fatigue during sepsis and septic shock, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.165, issue.12, pp.1611-1617, 2005.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.165.2.2108041

C. Shindoh, W. Hida, and Y. Ohkawara, TNF-alpha mRNA expression in diaphragm muscle after endotoxin administration., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.152, issue.5, pp.1690-1696, 1995.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.152.5.7582314

S. Ebihara, S. Hussain, and G. Danialou, Mechanical Ventilation Protects against Diaphragm Injury in Sepsis, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.256, issue.2, 2002.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.157.1.9702051

K. Maes, A. Stamiris, and D. Thomas, Effects of Controlled Mechanical Ventilation on Sepsis-Induced Diaphragm Dysfunction in Rats, Critical Care Medicine, vol.42, issue.12, pp.772-782, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0000000000000685

B. Jung, S. Nougaret, and M. Conseil, Sepsis Is Associated with a Preferential Diaphragmatic Atrophy, Anesthesiology, vol.120, issue.5, pp.1182-1191, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000201

B. Dureuil, N. Viirès, and J. Cantineau, Diaphragmatic contractility after upper abdominal surgery, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.61, issue.5, pp.1775-1780, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.5.1775

J. Diehl, F. Lofaso, and P. Deleuze, Clinically relevant diaphragmatic dysfunction after cardiac operations, J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, vol.107, pp.487-498, 1994.

G. Simonneau, A. Vivien, and R. Sartene, Diaphragm Dysfunction Induced by Upper Abdominal Surgery. Role of Postoperative Pain, Survey of Anesthesiology, vol.29, issue.6, pp.899-903, 1983.
DOI : 10.1097/00132586-198512000-00026

N. Lerolle, E. Guérot, and S. Dimassi, Ultrasonographic Diagnostic Criterion for Severe Diaphragmatic Dysfunction After Cardiac Surgery, Chest, vol.135, issue.2, pp.401-407, 2009.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.08-1531

I. Shaw, G. Mills, and D. Turnbull, The effect of propofol on airway pressures generated by magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.28, issue.7, pp.891-897, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-002-1347-x

G. Hermans, A. Agten, and D. Testelmans, Increased duration of mechanical ventilation is associated with decreased diaphragmatic force: a prospective observational study, Critical Care, vol.14, issue.4, pp.10-1186, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9094

B. Bouhemad, O. Langeron, and G. Orliaguet, Effects of halothane and isoflurane on the contraction, relaxation and energetics of rat diaphragmatic muscle, British Journal of Anaesthesia, vol.89, issue.3, pp.479-485, 2002.
DOI : 10.1093/bja/89.3.479

B. Veber, B. Dureuil, and N. Viires, Effects of Isoflurane on Contractile Properties of Diaphragm, Anesthesiology, vol.70, issue.4, pp.684-688, 1989.
DOI : 10.1097/00000542-198904000-00024

J. Kress and J. Hall, ICU-Acquired Weakness and Recovery from Critical Illness, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.370, issue.17, pp.287-288, 2014.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra1209390

C. Sassoon and V. Caiozzo, Bench-to-bedside review: Diaphragm muscle function in disuse and acute high-dose corticosteroid treatment, Critical Care, vol.13, issue.5, pp.221-231, 2009.
DOI : 10.1186/cc7971

URL : https://doi.org/10.1186/cc7971

D. Testelmans, K. Maes, and P. Wouters, Rocuronium exacerbates mechanical ventilation???induced diaphragm dysfunction in rats, Critical Care Medicine, vol.34, issue.12, pp.3018-3023, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000245783.28478.AD

D. Testelmans, K. Maes, and P. Wouters, Infusions of rocuronium and cisatracurium exert different effects on rat diaphragm function, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.67, issue.5, pp.872-879, 2007.
DOI : 10.1271/bbb.67.244

L. Papazian, J. Forel, and A. Gacouin, Neuromuscular Blockers in Early Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.363, issue.12, pp.1107-1116, 2010.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa1005372

L. Bourdelles, G. Viires, N. Boczkowski, and J. , Effects of mechanical ventilation on diaphragmatic contractile properties in rats., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.149, issue.6, pp.1539-1544, 1994.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.149.6.8004310

C. Sassoon, V. Caiozzo, A. Manka, and G. Sieck, Altered diaphragm contractile properties with controlled mechanical ventilation, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.138, issue.6, pp.2585-2595, 2001.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.4.1445

URL : http://jap.physiology.org/content/jap/92/6/2585.full.pdf

S. Powers, R. Shanely, and J. Coombes, Mechanical ventilation results in progressive contractile dysfunction in the diaphragm, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.124, issue.5, pp.1851-1858, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-4886(84)90096-7

A. Anzueto, J. Peters, and M. Tobin, Effects of prolonged controlled mechanical ventilation on diaphragmatic function in healthy adult baboons, Critical Care Medicine, vol.25, issue.7, pp.1187-1190, 1997.
DOI : 10.1097/00003246-199707000-00021

B. Jung, J. Constantin, and N. Rossel, Adaptive Support Ventilation Prevents Ventilator-induced Diaphragmatic Dysfunction in Piglet, Anesthesiology, vol.112, issue.6, pp.1435-1443, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181d7b036

URL : http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/data/journals/jasa/931095/0000542-201006000-00023.pdf

A. Knisely, S. Leal, and D. Singer, Abnormalities of diaphragmatic muscle in neonates with ventilated lungs, The Journal of Pediatrics, vol.113, issue.6, pp.1074-1077, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-3476(88)80585-7

P. Hooijman, A. Beishuizen, and C. Witt, Diaphragm Muscle Fiber Weakness and Ubiquitin???Proteasome Activation in Critically Ill Patients, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.89, issue.10, pp.1126-1138, 2015.
DOI : 10.1089/hum.2010.057

URL : http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4451621?pdf=render

M. Picard, B. Jung, and F. Liang, Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Lipid Accumulation in the Human Diaphragm during Mechanical Ventilation, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.183, issue.11, pp.1140-1149201703, 2012.
DOI : 10.1089/ars.2009.2788

G. Sieck and C. Mantilla, CrossTalk opposing view: The diaphragm muscle does not atrophy as a result of inactivity, The Journal of Physiology, vol.82, issue.21, pp.5259-5262, 2013.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00625.2003

E. Goligher, E. Fan, and M. Herridge, Evolution of Diaphragm Thickness during Mechanical Ventilation. Impact of Inspiratory Effort, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.191, issue.9, pp.201503-0620, 2015.
DOI : 10.1186/cc9094

H. Grosu, Y. Lee, and J. Lee, Diaphragm Muscle Thinning in Patients Who Are Mechanically Ventilated, Chest, vol.142, issue.6, pp.1455-1460, 2012.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.11-1638

T. Schepens, W. Verbrugghe, and K. Dams, The course of diaphragm atrophy in ventilated patients assessed with ultrasound: a longitudinal cohort study, Critical Care, vol.192, issue.1, 2015.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.201503-0620OC

T. Jiang, W. Reid, A. Belcastro, and J. Road, Load Dependence of Secondary Diaphragm Inflammation and Injury after Acute Inspiratory Loading, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.70, issue.1, pp.230-236, 1998.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.153.6.8665057

W. Reid, J. Huang, and S. Bryson, Diaphragm injury and myofibrillar structure induced by resistive loading, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.76, issue.1, pp.176-184, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1994.76.1.176

F. Laghi, D. Alfonso, N. Tobin, and M. , Pattern of recovery from diaphragmatic fatigue over 24 hours, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.79, issue.2, pp.539-546, 1985.
DOI : 10.1152/jappl.1995.79.2.539

M. Orozco-levi, J. Lloreta, and J. Minguella, Injury of the Human Diaphragm Associated with Exertion and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.464, issue.9, pp.1734-1739, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.7.2001042

J. Gea, E. Zhu, and J. Gáldiz, Functional Consequences of Eccentric Contractions of the Diaphragm, Archivos de Bronconeumolog??a ((English Edition)), vol.45, issue.2, pp.68-74, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/S1579-2129(09)70777-3

M. Pellegrini, G. Hedenstierna, and A. Roneus, The Diaphragm Acts as a Brake during Expiration to Prevent Lung Collapse, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.66, issue.12, pp.201605-0992, 2016.
DOI : 10.1186/s12871-015-0103-z

S. Jaber, B. Jung, and M. Sebbane, Alteration of the Piglet Diaphragm Contractility In Vivo and Its Recovery after Acute Hypercapnia, Anesthesiology, vol.108, issue.4, pp.651-658, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31816725a6

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00285673

B. Jung, M. Sebbane, L. Goff, and C. , Moderate and prolonged hypercapnic acidosis may protect against ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction in healthy piglet: an in vivo study, Critical Care, vol.17, issue.1, pp.10-1186, 2013.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.119.2.565

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00787287

W. Schellekens, H. Van-hees, and M. Kox, Hypercapnia attenuates ventilator-induced diaphragm atrophy and modulates dysfunction, Critical Care, vol.18, issue.1, pp.10-1186, 2014.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200304-489CP

URL : http://doi.org/10.1186/cc13719

A. Demoule, N. Molinari, and J. B. , Patterns of diaphragm function in critically ill patients receiving prolonged mechanical ventilation: a prospective longitudinal study, Annals of Intensive Care, vol.120, issue.1, pp.75-85, 2016.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000201

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01357795

D. Adler, E. Dupuis-lozeron, and J. Richard, Does Inspiratory Muscle Dysfunction Predict Readmission after Intensive Care Unit Discharge?, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.10, issue.3, pp.347-350231, 2014.
DOI : 10.1186/cc10081

A. Thille, B. Cabello, and F. Galia, Reduction of patient-ventilator asynchrony by reducing tidal volume during pressure-support ventilation, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.161, issue.8, pp.1477-1486, 2008.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.161.4.9904064

T. Yoshida, V. Torsani, and S. Gomes, Spontaneous Effort Causes Occult Pendelluft during Mechanical Ventilation, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.126, issue.12, pp.1420-1427, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182451c40

J. Doorduin, J. Nollet, and L. Roesthuis, Partial Neuromuscular Blockade during Partial Ventilatory Support in Sedated Patients with High Tidal Volumes, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.49, issue.8, pp.201605-1016, 2016.
DOI : 10.1097/00000658-197004000-00017

G. Carteaux, J. Mancebo, and A. Mercat, Bedside Adjustment of Proportional Assist Ventilation to Target a Predefined Range of Respiratory Effort*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.41, issue.9, pp.2125-2132, 2013.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a42e5

S. Reynolds, R. Meyyappan, and V. Thakkar, Mitigation of Ventilator-Induced Diaphragm Atrophy by Transvenous Phrenic Nerve Stimulation, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.195, pp.339-348, 2017.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.201502-0363OC

A. Martin, A. Joseph, and T. Beaver, Effect of Intermittent Phrenic Nerve Stimulation During Cardiothoracic Surgery on Mitochondrial Respiration in the Human Diaphragm*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.42, issue.2, pp.152-156, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a63fdf

W. Schellekens, H. Van-hees, and J. Doorduin, Strategies to optimize respiratory muscle function in ICU patients, Critical Care, vol.296, issue.5, 2016.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.90404.2008

URL : https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s13054-016-1280-y?site=ccforum.biomedcentral.com

M. Aubier, D. Murciano, and Y. Lecocguic, Effect of Hypophosphatemia on Diaphragmatic Contractility in Patients with Acute Respiratory Failure, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.313, issue.7, pp.420-424, 1985.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM198508153130705

M. Alsumrain, S. Jawad, and N. Imran, Association of hypophosphatemia with failure-to-wean from mechanical ventilation, Ann Clin Lab Sci, vol.40, pp.144-148, 2010.

M. Aubier, Effect of Theophylline on Diaphragmatic Muscle Function, Chest, vol.92, issue.1, pp.27-31, 1987.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.92.1_Supplement.27S

J. Doorduin, C. Sinderby, and J. Beck, The Calcium Sensitizer Levosimendan Improves Human Diaphragm Function, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.82, issue.1, pp.90-95, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02570507

URL : http://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/109764/1/109764.pdf

W. Kim, S. Park, and W. Kim, Effect of theophylline on ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction, Journal of Critical Care, vol.33, pp.145-150, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jcrc.2016.01.007

A. Martin, B. Smith, and P. Davenport, Inspiratory muscle strength training improves weaning outcome in failure to wean patients: a randomized trial, Critical Care, vol.15, issue.2, pp.10-1186, 2011.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.05.00105204

E. Dinino, E. Gartman, J. Sethi, and F. Mccool, Diaphragm ultrasound as a predictor of successful extubation from mechanical ventilation, Thorax, vol.65, issue.5, pp.423-427, 2014.
DOI : 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111