J. Nielsen, B. Uitdehaag, T. Korteweg, F. Barkhof, and C. Polman, Performance of the Swanton multiple sclerosis criteria for dissemination in space, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.16, issue.8, pp.985-992, 2010.
DOI : 10.1212/01.WNL.0000082654.99838.EF

S. Kelly, K. Kinsella, M. Duggan, N. Tubridy, C. Mcguigan et al., A proposed modification to the McDonald 2010 criteria for the diagnosis of primary progressive multiple sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.19, issue.8, pp.1095-100, 2013.
DOI : 10.1212/01.WNL.0000151852.15294.CB

E. Koutsouraki, V. Costa, and S. Baloyannis, Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Europe: A Review, International Review of Psychiatry, vol.22, issue.1, pp.2-13, 2010.
DOI : 10.3109/09540261003589216

M. Debouverie, L. Rumbach, and P. Clavelou, The organisation of health care and epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in France]. Revue neurologique, pp.6-7637, 2007.

B. Bodini, Z. Khaleeli, M. Cercignani, D. Miller, A. Thompson et al., Exploring the relationship between white matter and gray matter damage in early primary progressive multiple sclerosis: An in vivo study with TBSS and VBM, Human Brain Mapping, vol.23, issue.9, pp.2852-61, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/hbm.20713

M. Filippi, M. Alberoni, V. Martinelli, G. Sirabian, S. Bressi et al., Influence of Clinical Variables on Neuropsychological Performance in Multiple Sclerosis, European Neurology, vol.34, issue.6, pp.324-332, 1994.
DOI : 10.1159/000117071

H. Wishart and D. Sharpe, Neuropsychological aspects of multiple sclerosis: A quantitative review, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, vol.44, issue.6, pp.810-834, 1997.
DOI : 10.1136/jnnp.39.10.1008

R. Benedict and R. Zivadinov, Predicting neuropsychological abnormalities in multiple sclerosis, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.245, issue.1-2, pp.67-72, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2005.05.020

S. Rao, S. Reingold, M. Ron, O. Lyon-caen, and G. Comi, Workshop on Neurobehavioral Disorders in Multiple Sclerosis, Archives of Neurology, vol.50, issue.6, pp.658-62, 1992.
DOI : 10.1001/archneur.1993.00540060088026

W. Beatty, Assessment of cognitive and psychological functions in patients with multiple sclerosis: considerations for databasing Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, pp.239-282, 1999.

S. Rao, Neuropsychology of multiple sclerosis, Current Opinion in Neurology, vol.8, issue.3, pp.216-236, 1995.
DOI : 10.1097/00019052-199506000-00010

N. Chiaravalloti and J. Deluca, Cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis1139-51. 13. Defer G. [Neuropsychological evaluation and psychopathology of multiple sclerosis], The Lancet Neurology. Revue neurologique, vol.7157, issue.128 2, pp.1128-1162, 2001.

R. Marasescu, C. Garcia, M. , A. Benito, and Y. , Impairment of visuospatial/visuoconstructional skills in multiple sclerosis patients: the correlation with regional lesion load and subcortical atrophy, Neurolog??a (English Edition), vol.31, issue.3, pp.169-75, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.nrleng.2015.06.006

A. Thornton, N. Raz, and K. Tucke, Memory in multiple sclerosis: Contextual encoding deficits, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol.8, issue.03, pp.395-409, 2002.
DOI : 10.1017/S1355617702813200

G. Bergendal, S. Fredrikson, and O. Almkvist, Selective Decline in Information Processing in Subgroups of Multiple Sclerosis: An 8-Year Longitudinal Study, European Neurology, vol.57, issue.4, pp.193-202, 2007.
DOI : 10.1159/000099158

R. Kail, Speed of information processing in patients with multiple sclerosis

C. Archibald and J. Fisk, Information Processing Efficiency in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology (Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition: Section A), vol.22, issue.5, pp.686-701, 2000.
DOI : 10.1076/1380-3395(200010)22:5;1-9;FT686

S. Rao, G. Leo, L. Ellington, T. Nauertz, L. Bernardin et al., Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. II. Impact on employment and social functioning Activity of attention related structures in multiple sclerosis patients, Neurology. Brain research, vol.411151, issue.21, pp.692-6150, 1991.

J. Foong, L. Rozewicz, W. Chong, A. Thompson, D. Miller et al., A comparison of neuropsychological deficits in primary and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis, Journal of Neurology, vol.247, issue.2, pp.97-101, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/PL00007804

K. Dujardin, A. Donze, and P. Hautecoeur, Attention impairment in recently diagnosed multiple sclerosis, European Journal of Neurology, vol.146, issue.4, pp.61-67, 1998.
DOI : 10.1037//0096-1523.17.1.3

J. Foong, L. Rozewicz, G. Quaghebeur, C. Davie, L. Kartsounis et al., Executive function in multiple sclerosis. The role of frontal lobe pathology, Brain, vol.120, issue.1, pp.15-26, 1997.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/120.1.15

M. Amato, G. Ponziani, G. Siracusa, and S. Sorbi, Cognitive Dysfunction in Early-Onset Multiple Sclerosis, Archives of Neurology, vol.58, issue.10, pp.1602-1608, 2001.
DOI : 10.1001/archneur.58.10.1602

V. Planche, M. Gibelin, D. Cregut, B. Pereira, P. Clavelou et al., Cognitive impairment in a population-based study of patients with multiple sclerosis: differences between late relapsing-remitting, secondary progressive and primary progressive multiple sclerosis Cognitive performance profile in different phenotypes of MS with cognitive complaints. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders, European journal of neurology, vol.233, issue.284, pp.282-9463, 2014.

L. Jonkman, D. Rosenthal, M. Sormani, L. Miles, J. Herbert et al., Gray Matter Correlates of Cognitive Performance Differ between Relapsing-Remitting and Primary-Progressive Multiple Sclerosis, e0129380. 30. Moccia M, 2015.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0129380.t003

URL : http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129380

R. Benedict, J. Duquin, S. Jurgensen, R. Rudick, J. Feitcher et al., Repeated assessment of neuropsychological deficits in multiple sclerosis using the Symbol Digit Modalities Test and the MS Neuropsychological Screening Questionnaire, Multiple Sclerosis, vol.14, issue.7, pp.940-946, 2008.
DOI : 10.1177/1352458508090923

K. Dujardin, P. Sockeel, M. Cabaret, D. Seze, J. Vermersch et al., BCcogSEP: a French test battery evaluating cognitive functions in multiple sclerosis]. Revue neurologique Krupp LB, Elkins LE. Fatigue and declines in cognitive functioning in multiple sclerosis, Neurology, vol.16055, issue.337, pp.51-62934, 2000.

P. Arnett, C. Higginson, W. Voss, B. Wright, W. Bender et al., Depressed mood in multiple sclerosis: relationship to capacity-demanding memory and attentional functioning Neuropsychologic status in multiple sclerosis after treatment with glatiramer, Neuropsychology. Archives of neurology, vol.1356, issue.33, pp.434-46319, 1999.

J. Klapper, Interferon beta treatment of multiple sclerosis):188; author reply -90. 37, Neurology. Krupp LB, vol.44, issue.1, 1994.

H. Zhou, D. Guo, Z. Hao, B. Wu, H. Genova et al., Pharmacologic treatment for memory disorder in multiple sclerosis. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews Cognitive rehabilitation in multiple sclerosis: the role of plasticity, Multicenter randomized clinical trial of donepezil for memory impairment in multiple sclerosisCd008876. 39. Chiaravalloti ND, pp.1500-767, 2011.

G. Tedeschi, D. Dinacci, M. Comerci, L. Lavorgna, G. Savettieri et al., Brain atrophy evolution and lesion load accrual in multiple sclerosis: a 2-year follow-up study. Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, pp.204-215, 2009.

M. Calabrese, F. Rinaldi, D. Seppi, A. Favaretto, L. Squarcina et al., Cortical Diffusion-Tensor Imaging Abnormalities in Multiple Sclerosis: A 3-year Longitudinal Study, Radiology, vol.261, issue.3, pp.891-899, 2011.
DOI : 10.1148/radiol.11110195

B. Guttman, Neocortical atrophy, third ventricular width, and cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, Archives of neurology, vol.63, issue.9, pp.1301-1307, 2006.

B. Bodini, M. Battaglini, D. Stefano, N. Khaleeli, Z. Barkhof et al., T2 lesion location really matters: a 10 year follow-up study in primary progressive multiple sclerosis, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, vol.82, issue.1, pp.72-79, 2011.
DOI : 10.1136/jnnp.2009.201574

K. Fahrbach, R. Huelin, A. Martin, E. Kim, H. Dastani et al., Relating relapse and T2 lesion changes to disability progression in multiple sclerosis: a systematic literature review and regression analysis Cortical cerebral metabolism correlates with MRI lesion load and cognitive dysfunction in MS Relation between MR abnormalities and patterns of cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis Regional magnetic resonance imaging lesion burden and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis: a longitudinal study Structural and functional surrogates of cognitive impairment at the very early stage of multiple sclerosis, BMC neurology. Neurology. Neurology. Archives of neurology. Ranjeva JP J Neurol Sci, vol.13545058245, issue.5112, pp.180-48558, 1998.

S. Ruggieri, M. Petracca, A. Miller, S. Krieger, R. Ghassemi et al., Association of Deep Gray Matter Damage With Cortical and Spinal Cord Degeneration in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis, JAMA Neurology, vol.72, issue.12, pp.1466-74, 2015.
DOI : 10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.1897

O. Galego, A. Gouveia, S. Batista, C. Moura, and E. Machado, Brain atrophy and physical disability in primary progressive multiple sclerosis: A volumetric study, The Neuroradiology Journal, vol.318, issue.3, pp.354-362, 2015.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/122.2.291

M. Sanfilipo, R. Benedict, B. Weinstock-guttman, R. Bakshi, R. Dineen et al., Gray and white matter brain atrophy and neuropsychological impairment in multiple sclerosis Disconnection as a mechanism for cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, Diffusion tensor MRI tractography and cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis, pp.969-75685, 2006.

B. Bodini, M. Cercignani, Z. Khaleeli, D. Miller, R. M. Penny et al., Corpus callosum damage predicts disability progression and cognitive dysfunction in primary-progressive MS after five years, Human Brain Mapping, vol.72, issue.Part 2, pp.1163-72, 2013.
DOI : 10.1002/hbm.21499

K. Koenig, K. Sakaie, M. Lowe, J. Lin, L. Stone et al., The relationship between cognitive function and high-resolution diffusion tensor MRI of the cingulum bundle in multiple sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.21, issue.14, pp.1794-801, 2015.
DOI : 10.1017/S1355617710001360

N. Sahin, R. Selouan, C. Markowitz, E. Melhem, and M. Bilello, Limbic pathway lesions in patients with multiple sclerosis, Acta Radiologica, vol.57, issue.3, pp.341-348, 1987.
DOI : 10.1177/0284185115578689

V. Fleischer, A. Groger, N. Koirala, A. Droby, M. Muthuraman et al., Increased structural white and grey matter network connectivity compensates for functional decline in early multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, 2016.

O. Almkvist, Callosal atrophy in multiple sclerosis is related to cognitive speed, Acta neurologica Scandinavica, vol.127, issue.4, pp.281-290, 2013.

O. Yaldizli, M. Pardini, V. Sethi, N. Muhlert, Z. Liu et al., Characteristics of lesional and extra-lesional cortical grey matter in relapsing???remitting and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: A magnetisation transfer and diffusion tensor imaging study, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.23, issue.2, pp.150-159, 2016.
DOI : 10.1212/01.wnl.0000237551.26858.39

S. Hannoun, M. Bagory, F. Durand-dubief, D. Ibarrola, J. Comte et al., White matter tract abnormalities are associated with cognitive dysfunction in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills 2016. 69 Correlation of diffusion and metabolic alterations in different clinical forms of multiple sclerosis Intrinsic damage to the major white matter tracts in patients with different clinical phenotypes of multiple sclerosis: a voxelwise diffusion-tensor MR study, PLoS One. Radiology, vol.7260, issue.32, pp.541-50, 2011.

S. Savio, U. Hakulinen, P. Ryymin, S. Hagman, P. Dastidar et al., Hemispheric asymmetry measured by texture analysis and diffusion tensor imaging in two multiple sclerosis subtypes, Acta Radiologica, vol.56, issue.7, pp.844-51, 1987.
DOI : 10.1177/0284185114539323

W. Tian, T. Zhu, J. Zhong, X. Liu, P. Rao et al., Progressive decline in fractional anisotropy on serial DTI examinations of the corpus callosum: a putative marker of disease activity and progression in SPMS, Neuroradiology, vol.188, issue.4, pp.287-97, 2012.
DOI : 10.1007/s00234-011-0885-8

U. Braun, M. Plichta, C. Esslinger, C. Sauer, L. Haddad et al., Testretest reliability of resting-state connectivity network characteristics using fMRI and graph theoretical measures Functional magnetic resonance imaging of working memory among multiple sclerosis patients, Neuroimage. Journal of neuroimaging : official journal of the American Society of Neuroimaging, vol.5914, issue.742, pp.1404-12150, 2004.

S. Roosendaal, H. Hulst, H. Vrenken, H. Feenstra, J. Castelijns et al., Structural and functional hippocampal changes in multiple sclerosis patients with intact memory function Memory impairment in multiple sclerosis: Relevance of hippocampal activation and hippocampal connectivity al. Functional adaptive changes within the hippocampal memory system of patients with multiple sclerosis, Radiology. Multiple sclerosis Hulst HE, Schoonheim MM Hum Brain Mapp, vol.2552133, issue.7710, pp.595-6041705, 2010.

B. Audoin, F. Reuter, M. Duong, I. Malikova, S. Confort-gouny et al., Efficiency of cognitive control recruitment in the very early stage of multiple sclerosis: a one-year fMRI follow-up study, Multiple Sclerosis, vol.14, issue.6, pp.786-92, 2008.
DOI : 10.1177/1352458508089360

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00337972

J. Geurts, Resting state networks change in clinically isolated syndrome The Significance of the Default Mode Network (DMN) in Neurological and Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Review. The Yale journal of biology and medicine, Brain : a journal of neurology, vol.13389, issue.821, pp.1612-2149, 2010.

D. Hawellek, J. Hipp, C. Lewis, M. Corbetta, and A. Engel, Increased functional connectivity indicates the severity of cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.57, issue.3, pp.19066-71, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/00004728-200105000-00022

E. Esen, S. Sizmaz, T. Demir, M. Demirkiran, I. Unal et al., disability progression in multiple sclerosis: A longitudinal resting-state fMRI study Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England). 2016 Evaluation of Choroidal Vascular Changes in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Using Enhanced Depth Imaging Optical Coherence Tomography, Ophthalmologica Journal international d'ophtalmologie International journal of ophthalmology Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde, vol.86235, issue.2, pp.65-71, 2016.

M. Huang, D. Allen, D. Keller, P. Fadel, E. Frohman et al., Impaired carotid baroreflex control of arterial blood pressure in multiple sclerosis, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.116, issue.1, pp.81-88, 2016.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00003.2016

D. Keyser, J. Steen, C. Mostert, J. Koch, and M. , Hypoperfusion of the Cerebral White Matter in Multiple Sclerosis: Possible Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Significance, Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, vol.11, issue.1, pp.1645-51, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/nn980

M. Ramirez and E. Gonzalez-renovato, Archives of medical research Decreased endothelin-1 plasma levels in multiple sclerosis patients: a possible factor of vascular dysregulation? Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research Heterogeneity of cortical lesions in multiple sclerosis: an MRI perfusion study, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, vol.452133, issue.913, pp.687-971066, 2013.

Z. Chen, M. L. Papadaki, E. Mastorodemos, V. Amanakis, E. Tsekouras et al., Hyperperfusion of multiple sclerosis plaques characterized by 3D FSE arterial spin labelling Chinese medical sciences journal = Chung-kuo i hsueh k'o hsueh tsa chih White matter and deep gray matter hemodynamic changes in multiple sclerosis patients with clinically isolated syndrome Robust perfusion deficits in cognitively impaired patients with secondary-progressive multiple sclerosis, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences. Magn Reson Med. AJNR American journal of neuroradiology, vol.296834, issue.971, pp.194-200, 2012.

R. Aviv, P. Francis, R. Tenenbein, O. Connor, P. Zhang et al., Decreased Frontal Lobe Gray Matter Perfusion in Cognitively Impaired Patients with Secondary-Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Detected by the Bookend Technique, American Journal of Neuroradiology, vol.33, issue.9, pp.1779-85, 2012.
DOI : 10.3174/ajnr.A3060

O. Marshall, H. Lu, J. Brisset, F. Xu, P. Liu et al., Impaired Cerebrovascular Reactivity in Multiple Sclerosis, JAMA Neurology, vol.71, issue.10, pp.1275-81, 2014.
DOI : 10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.1668

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4376108

Y. Stern, Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The Lancet Neurology, pp.1006-1018, 2012.

R. Katzman, M. Aronson, P. Fuld, C. Kawas, T. Brown et al., Development of dementing illnesses in an 80-year-old volunteer cohort, Annals of Neurology, vol.11, issue.4, pp.317-341, 1989.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.410250402

J. Sumowski, N. Chiaravalloti, and J. Deluca, Cognitive reserve protects against cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, vol.53, issue.8, pp.913-939, 2009.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.287.6.742

Y. Stern, Cognitive reserve???, Neuropsychologia, vol.47, issue.10, pp.2015-2043, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00863749

M. Valenzuela, P. Sachdev, W. Fau-wen, W. Wen, X. Fau-chen et al., Lifespan mental activity predicts diminished rate of hippocampal atrophy, Electronic), pp.1932-6203

J. Sumowski, M. Rocca, V. Leavitt, J. Dackovic, S. Mesaros et al., Brain reserve and cognitive reserve protect against cognitive decline over 4.5 years in MS, Neurology, vol.82, issue.20, pp.1776-83, 2014.
DOI : 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000433

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4035710

C. Roe, C. Xiong, J. Fau-miller, J. Miller-jp-fau-morris, and J. Morris, Education and Alzheimer disease without dementia: Support for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Neurology, vol.68, issue.3, pp.1526-632
DOI : 10.1212/01.wnl.0000251303.50459.8a

H. Kishimoto, T. Ohara, J. Hata, T. Ninomiya, D. Yoshida et al., The long-term association between physical activity and risk of dementia in the community: the Hisayama Study, European Journal of Epidemiology, vol.8, issue.4, pp.1573-7284
DOI : 10.1007/s10654-016-0125-y

M. Beckett, C. Ardern, and M. Rotondi, A meta-analysis of prospective studies on the role of physical activity and the prevention of Alzheimer???s disease in older adults, BMC Geriatrics, vol.14, issue.1, pp.1471-2318
DOI : 10.1080/13607860903586136

B. Brown, P. Jj-fau-taddei, K. Taddei, K. Fau-lui, J. et al., Physical activity and amyloid-beta plasma and brain levels: results from the Australian Imaging, Biomarkers and Lifestyle Study of Ageing, pp.1476-5578

C. Hall, L. Rb-fau-sliwinski, M. Sliwinski, M. Fau-katz, M. et al., Cognitive activities delay onset of memory decline in persons who develop dementia, Neurology, vol.73, issue.5, pp.1526-632
DOI : 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181b04ae3

E. Helzner, N. Scarmeas, S. Fau-cosentino, S. Cosentino, F. Fau-portet et al., Leisure Activity and Cognitive Decline in Incident Alzheimer Disease, Archives of Neurology, vol.64, issue.12, pp.3-9942
DOI : 10.1001/archneur.64.12.1749

S. Cheng, P. Chow, Y. Song, E. Yu, and J. Lam, Can leisure activities slow dementia progression in nursing home residents? A cluster-randomized controlled trial, International Psychogeriatrics, vol.9, issue.04, pp.637-680, 2014.
DOI : 10.1002/sim.3527

S. Cheng, C. Pk-fau-song, Y. , S. Y. Fau-yu, E. et al., Mental and physical activities delay cognitive decline in older persons with dementia, Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, vol.22, issue.1, pp.1545-7214, 2014.
DOI : 10.1097/jgp.0b013e31826d6af1

B. Gold, Lifelong bilingualism and neural reserve against Alzheimer's disease: A review of findings and potential mechanisms, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.281, pp.9-15, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.006

E. Boots, S. Schultz, R. Almeida, J. Oh, R. Koscik et al., Occupational Complexity and Cognitive Reserve in a Middle-Aged Cohort at Risk for Alzheimer's Disease, Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, vol.30, issue.7, pp.634-676, 2015.
DOI : 10.1093/arclin/acv041

P. Reuter-lorenz and D. Park, Human Neuroscience and the Aging Mind: A New Look at Old Problems, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, vol.65, issue.4, pp.405-420, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/geronb/gbq035

M. Raichle, The brain's default mode network. Annual review of neuroscience, pp.433-480, 2015.

G. Vinetti, C. Mozzini, P. Desenzani, E. Boni, L. Bulla et al., Supervised exercise training reduces oxidative stress and cardiometabolic risk in adults with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial, Scientific Reports, vol.45, issue.1, p.9238, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/s12160-012-9405-2

Y. Nishida, K. Tanaka, M. Hara, N. Hirao, H. Tanaka et al., Effects of home-based bench step exercise on inflammatory cytokines and lipid profiles in elderly Japanese females: A randomized controlled trial, Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, vol.61, issue.3, pp.443-51, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.archger.2015.06.017

J. Gong, X. Chen, and S. Li, Efficacy of a Community-Based Physical Activity Program KM2H2 for Stroke and Heart Attack Prevention among Senior Hypertensive Patients: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Phase-II Trial, PLOS ONE, vol.23, issue.Supplementary, p.139442, 2015.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0139442.s002

K. Erickson, R. Leckie, and A. Weinstein, Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume, Neurobiology of Aging, vol.35, issue.2, pp.20-28, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.034

URL : http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.034

C. Sexton, J. Betts, N. Demnitz, H. Dawes, K. Ebmeier et al., A systematic review of MRI studies examining the relationship between physical fitness and activity and the white matter of the ageing brain, NeuroImage, vol.131, pp.81-90, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.071

C. Boyle, C. Raji, K. Erickson, O. Lopez, J. Becker et al., Physical activity, body mass index, and brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease, Neurobiology of Aging, vol.36, issue.1, pp.194-202, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.05.036

L. Ten-brinke, N. Bolandzadeh, L. Nagamatsu, C. Hsu, J. Davis et al., Aerobic exercise increases hippocampal volume in older women with probable mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month randomised controlled trial, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol.8, issue.4, pp.248-54, 2015.
DOI : 10.1136/bjsports-2013-093184

E. Maguire, D. Gadian, I. Johnsrude, C. Good, J. Ashburner et al., Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.403, issue.4, pp.4398-403, 2000.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990125)403:4<459::AID-CNE3>3.0.CO;2-9

M. Sundgren, A. Wahlin, L. Maurex, and T. Brismar, Event related potential and response time give evidence for a physiological reserve in cognitive functioning in relapsing???remitting multiple sclerosis, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.356, issue.1-2, pp.107-119, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2015.06.025

C. Modica, N. Bergsland, M. Dwyer, D. Ramasamy, E. Carl et al., Cognitive reserve moderates the impact of subcortical gray matter atrophy on neuropsychological status in multiple sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.19, issue.1, pp.36-42, 2016.
DOI : 10.1007/s00415-013-7204-8

. Reading, Literacy activities are linked to hippocampal volume and memory in multiple sclerosis, Multiple sclerosis, 2016.

J. Sumowski, G. Wylie, A. Gonnella, N. Chiaravalloti, and J. Deluca, Premorbid cognitive leisure independently contributes to cognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis, Neurology, vol.75, issue.16, pp.1428-1459, 2010.
DOI : 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f881a6

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3039206

J. Sumowski, N. Chiaravalloti, V. Leavitt, and J. Deluca, Cognitive reserve in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis (Houndmills, pp.1454-1462, 2012.

J. Sumowski, G. Wylie, N. Chiaravalloti, and J. Deluca, Intellectual enrichment lessens the effect of brain atrophy on learning and memory in multiple sclerosis, Neurology, vol.74, issue.24, pp.1942-1947, 2010.
DOI : 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e396be

M. Da-silva, A. Cavaco, S. Moreira, I. Bettencourt, A. Santos et al., Cognitive reserve in multiple sclerosis: Protective effects of education, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.13, issue.10, pp.1312-1333, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2005.08.019

J. Sandry, J. Paxton, and J. Sumowski, Abstract, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol.8, issue.03, pp.375-383, 2016.
DOI : 10.1177/1352458508094398

A. Booth, J. Rodgers, C. Schwartz, B. Quaranto, B. Weinstock-guttman et al., Active Cognitive Reserve Influences the Regional Atrophy to Cognition Link in Multiple Sclerosis, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol.19, issue.10, pp.1128-1161, 2013.
DOI : 10.1017/S1355617713001082

C. Schwartz, A. Ayandeh, M. Ramanathan, R. Benedict, M. Dwyer et al., Reserve-building activities in multiple sclerosis patients and healthy controls: a descriptive study, BMC Neurology, vol.20, issue.8, p.135, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/S11136-015-1017-4

R. Luerding, S. Gebel, E. Gebel, S. Schwab-malek, and R. Weissert, Influence of Formal Education on Cognitive Reserve in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, Frontiers in Neurology, vol.20, pp.1664-2295
DOI : 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31817945f6

O. Ghaffar, M. Fiati, and A. Feinstein, Occupational Attainment as a Marker of Cognitive Reserve in Multiple Sclerosis, PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.10, p.47206, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0047206.s001

J. Sandry and J. Sumowski, Working Memory Mediates the Relationship between Intellectual Enrichment and Long-Term Memory in Multiple Sclerosis: An Exploratory Analysis of Cognitive Reserve, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol.27, issue.08, pp.1469-7661
DOI : 10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.553

J. Sumowski, M. Rocca, V. Leavitt, G. Riccitelli, J. Sandry et al., Searching for the neural basis of reserve against memory decline: intellectual enrichment linked to larger hippocampal volume in multiple sclerosis, European Journal of Neurology, vol.133, issue.1, pp.39-44, 2016.
DOI : 10.1111/ene.12662

D. Pinter, J. Sumowski, J. Deluca, F. Fazekas, A. Pichler et al., Higher Education Moderates the Effect of T2 Lesion Load and Third Ventricle Width on Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis, PLoS ONE, vol.80, issue.1, p.87567, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0087567.t003

J. Sumowski, G. Wylie, J. Deluca, and N. Chiaravalloti, Intellectual enrichment is linked to cerebral efficiency in multiple sclerosis: functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence for cognitive reserve, Brain, vol.133, issue.2, pp.362-74, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awp307

V. Leavitt, C. Cirnigliaro, A. Cohen, A. Farag, M. Brooks et al., Aerobic exercise increases hippocampal volume and improves memory in multiple sclerosis: Preliminary findings, Neurocase, vol.3, issue.6, pp.695-702, 2014.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427

M. Gunther, K. Oshio, and D. Feinberg, Single-shot 3D imaging techniques improve arterial spin labeling perfusion measurements, Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, vol.44, issue.2, pp.491-499, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/mrm.20580

L. Debernard, T. Melzer, A. S. Eagle, J. , V. Stockum et al., Deep grey matter MRI abnormalities and cognitive function in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, vol.234, issue.3, pp.352-61, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.10.004

M. Ota, N. Sato, Y. Nakata, K. Ito, K. Kamiya et al., Abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in multiple sclerosis: A pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling MRI study, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, vol.31, issue.6, pp.990-995, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.mri.2013.03.016

W. Rashid, L. Parkes, G. Ingle, D. Chard, A. Toosy et al., Abnormalities of cerebral perfusion in multiple sclerosis, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, vol.75, issue.9, pp.1288-93, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/jnnp.2003.026021

L. Debernard, T. Melzer, V. Stockum, S. Graham, C. Wheeler-kingshott et al., Reduced grey matter perfusion without volume loss in early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, vol.33, issue.5, pp.544-51, 2014.
DOI : 10.1136/jnnp-2013-305612

M. Amann, L. Achtnichts, J. Hirsch, Y. Naegelin, J. Gregori et al., 3D GRASE arterial spin labelling reveals an inverse correlation of cortical perfusion with the white matter lesion volume in MS, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.18, issue.11, pp.1570-1576, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.068

S. Adhya, G. Johnson, J. Herbert, H. Jaggi, J. Babb et al., Pattern of hemodynamic impairment in multiple sclerosis: Dynamic susceptibility contrast perfusion MR imaging at 3.0??T, NeuroImage, vol.33, issue.4, pp.1029-1064, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.008

A. Klein, J. Andersson, B. Ardekani, J. Ashburner, B. Avants et al., Evaluation of 14 nonlinear deformation algorithms applied to human brain MRI registration, NeuroImage, vol.46, issue.3, pp.786-802, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.037

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00360790

P. Schmidt, C. Gaser, M. Arsic, D. Buck, A. Forschler et al., An automated tool for detection of FLAIR-hyperintense white-matter lesions in Multiple Sclerosis, NeuroImage, vol.59, issue.4, pp.3774-83, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.032

D. Schmitter, A. Roche, B. Marechal, D. Ribes, A. Abdulkadir et al., An evaluation of volume-based morphometry for prediction of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease, NeuroImage: Clinical, vol.7, pp.7-17, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.001

I. Asllani, A. Borogovac, and T. Brown, Regression algorithm correcting for partial volume effects in arterial spin labeling MRI, Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, vol.49, issue.6, pp.1362-71, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/mrm.21670

J. Wang, D. Alsop, H. Song, J. Maldjian, K. Tang et al., Arterial transit time imaging with flow encoding arterial spin tagging (FEAST), Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, vol.40, issue.3, pp.599-607, 2003.
DOI : 10.1002/mrm.10559

M. Cavusoglu, J. Pfeuffer, K. Ugurbil, and K. Uludag, Comparison of pulsed arterial spin labeling encoding schemes and absolute perfusion quantification, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, vol.27, issue.8, pp.1039-1084, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.mri.2009.04.002

N. Tzourio-mazoyer, B. Landeau, D. Papathanassiou, F. Crivello, O. Etard et al., Automated Anatomical Labeling of Activations in SPM Using a Macroscopic Anatomical Parcellation of the MNI MRI Single-Subject Brain, NeuroImage, vol.15, issue.1, pp.273-89, 2002.
DOI : 10.1006/nimg.2001.0978

Y. Likitjaroen, N. Suwanwela, and K. Phanthumchinda, Vasoreactivity induced by acetazolamide in patients with vascular dementia versus Alzheimer's disease, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.283, issue.1-2, pp.32-37, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2009.02.363

A. Kastrup, G. Krüger, G. Glover, T. Neumann-haefelin, and M. Moseley, Regional Variability of Cerebral Blood Oxygenation Response to Hypercapnia, NeuroImage, vol.10, issue.6, pp.675-81, 1999.
DOI : 10.1006/nimg.1999.0505

A. Dahl, D. Russell, R. Fau-nyberg-hansen, R. Nyberg-hansen, K. Fau-rootwelt et al., Cerebral vasoreactivity in unilateral carotid artery disease. A comparison of blood flow velocity and regional cerebral blood flow measurements, Stroke, vol.25, issue.3, pp.621-627, 1994.
DOI : 10.1161/01.STR.25.3.621

K. Strijckmans, Acetazolamide vasoreactivity in vascular dementia: a positron emission tomographic study, Eur Neurol, vol.41, issue.1, pp.31-37, 1999.

S. Cantin, M. Villien, O. Moreaud, I. Tropres, S. Keignart et al., Impaired cerebral vasoreactivity to CO2 in Alzheimer's disease using BOLD fMRI, NeuroImage, vol.58, issue.2, pp.579-87, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.070

URL : http://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00658988/file/Cantin_Neuroimage_2011_VEditeur.pdf

M. Oishi, Y. Mochizuki, and T. Takasu, Regional differences in cerebrovascular reactivity to acetazolamide in Alzheimer's disease, Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, vol.6, issue.5, pp.380-381, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0967-5868(99)90030-9

T. Gurevich, A. Gur, N. Bornstein, N. Giladi, and A. Korczyn, Cerebral vasomotor reactivity in Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy and pure autonomic failure, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.243, issue.1-2, pp.57-60, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2005.11.028

A. Krainik, A. Maillet, V. Fleury, M. Sahin, I. Tropres et al., Levodopa does not change cerebral vasoreactivity in Parkinson's disease, Movement Disorders, vol.74, issue.4, pp.469-75, 2013.
DOI : 10.1002/mds.25267

O. Marshall, S. Chawla, H. Lu, L. Pape, and Y. Ge, Cerebral blood flow modulation insufficiency in brain networks in multiple sclerosis: A hypercapnia MRI study, Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, vol.2013, issue.12, 2016.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.010

M. Rocca, P. Preziosa, S. Mesaros, E. Pagani, J. Dackovic et al., Clinically Isolated Syndrome Suggestive of Multiple Sclerosis: Dynamic Patterns of Gray and White Matter Changes???A 2-year MR Imaging Study, Radiology, vol.278, issue.3, pp.841-53, 2016.
DOI : 10.1148/radiol.2015150532

S. Hojjat, C. Cantrell, T. Carroll, R. Vitorino, A. Feinstein et al., Perfusion reduction in the absence of structural differences in cognitively impaired versus unimpaired RRMS patients, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.31, issue.13, 2016.
DOI : 10.1177/1352458512438455

A. Papathanasiou, L. Messinis, P. Zampakis, G. Panagiotakis, P. Gourzis et al., Thalamic atrophy predicts cognitive impairment in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Effect on instrumental activities of daily living and employment status, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.358, issue.1-2, pp.236-278, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2015.09.001

R. Bakshi, R. Benedict, R. Bermel, S. Caruthers, S. Puli et al., T2 Hypointensity in the Deep Gray Matter of Patients With Multiple Sclerosis, Archives of Neurology, vol.59, issue.1, pp.62-70, 2002.
DOI : 10.1001/archneur.59.1.62

B. Drayer, P. Burger, R. Darwin, S. Riederer, R. Herfkens et al., MRI of brain iron, American Journal of Roentgenology, vol.147, issue.1, pp.103-113, 1986.
DOI : 10.2214/ajr.147.1.103

C. Langkammer, F. Schweser, N. Krebs, A. Deistung, W. Goessler et al., Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) as a means to measure brain iron? A post mortem validation study, NeuroImage, vol.62, issue.3, pp.1593-1602, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.05.049

J. Hagemeier, B. Weinstock-guttman, N. Bergsland, M. Heininen-brown, E. Carl et al., Iron Deposition on SWI-Filtered Phase in the Subcortical Deep Gray Matter of Patients with Clinically Isolated Syndrome May Precede Structure-Specific Atrophy, American Journal of Neuroradiology, vol.33, issue.8, pp.1596-601, 2012.
DOI : 10.3174/ajnr.A3030

M. Cambron, D. Haeseleer, M. Laureys, G. Clinckers, R. Debruyne et al., White-Matter Astrocytes, Axonal Energy Metabolism, and Axonal Degeneration in Multiple Sclerosis, Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, vol.4, issue.3, pp.413-437, 2012.
DOI : 10.1038/nn1854

F. Tancredi, C. Gauthier, C. Madjar, D. Bolar, J. Fisher et al., Comparison of pulsed and pseudocontinuous arterial spin-labeling for measuring CO2-induced cerebrovascular reactivity, Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, vol.31, issue.2, pp.312-333, 2012.
DOI : 10.1002/jmri.23658

D. Mandell, J. Han, J. Poublanc, A. Crawley, J. Stainsby et al., Mapping Cerebrovascular Reactivity Using Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent MRI in Patients With Arterial Steno-occlusive Disease: Comparison With Arterial Spin Labeling MRI, Stroke, vol.39, issue.7, pp.2021-2029, 2008.
DOI : 10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.506709

L. Zhuang, S. Shenxun, L. Xingdang, Z. Menglong, L. Congjin et al., Evaluation of 99mTc-ECD SPECT/CT brain imaging with scenium analysis in patients with generalized anxiety disorder], Zhonghua yi xue za zhi, vol.95, issue.13, pp.1017-1037, 2015.

M. Alosco, J. Gunstad, C. Beard, X. Xu, U. Clark et al., The Synergistic Effects of Anxiety and Cerebral Hypoperfusion on Cognitive Dysfunction in Older Adults With Cardiovascular Disease, Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, vol.25, issue.8, pp.57-66, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.08.060

J. Kent, J. Coplan, O. Mawlawi, J. Martinez, S. Browne et al., Prediction of panic response to a respiratory stimulant by reduced orbitofrontal cerebral blood flow in panic disorder. The American journal of psychiatry, pp.1379-81, 2005.

C. Tankard, S. Waldstein, E. Siegel, L. Holder, D. Lefkowitz et al., Cerebral blood flow and anxiety in older men: An analysis of resting anterior asymmetry and prefrontal regions, Brain and Cognition, vol.52, issue.1, pp.70-78, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00010-1

M. Rocca, P. Valsasina, H. Hulst, K. Abdel-aziz, C. Enzinger et al., Functional correlates of cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: A multicenter fMRI Study, Human Brain Mapping, vol.19, issue.12, pp.5799-814, 2014.
DOI : 10.1002/hbm.22586

E. Klawiter, A. Ceccarelli, A. Arora, J. Jackson, S. Bakshi et al., Corpus Callosum Atrophy Correlates with Gray Matter Atrophy in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, Journal of Neuroimaging, vol.67, issue.Pt 1, pp.62-69, 2015.
DOI : 10.1111/jon.12124

B. Bodini, M. Cercignani, A. Toosy, D. Stefano, N. Miller et al., A novel approach with ???skeletonised MTR??? measures tract-specific microstructural changes in early primary-progressive MS, Human Brain Mapping, vol.68, issue.22, pp.723-756, 2014.
DOI : 10.1002/hbm.22196

T. Welton, D. Kent, C. Constantinescu, D. Auer, and R. Dineen, Functionally Relevant White Matter Degradation in Multiple Sclerosis: A Tract-based Spatial Meta-Analysis, Radiology, vol.275, issue.1, pp.89-96, 2015.
DOI : 10.1148/radiol.14140925

V. Douet and L. Chang, Fornix as an imaging marker for episodic memory deficits in healthy aging and in various neurological disorders, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, vol.53, issue.32, p.343, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.05.068

T. Steckova, P. Hlustik, V. Sladkova, F. Odstrcil, J. Mares et al., Thalamic atrophy and cognitive impairment in clinically isolated syndrome and multiple sclerosis, Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol.342, issue.1-2, pp.62-70, 2014.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jns.2014.04.026

P. Tortorella, M. Lagana, M. Saresella, E. Tavazzi, M. Preti et al., Determinants of Disability in Multiple Sclerosis: An Immunological and MRI Study, BioMed Research International, vol.14, issue.2, p.875768, 2014.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awm038

R. Cappellani, N. Bergsland, B. Weinstock-guttman, C. Kennedy, E. Carl et al., Subcortical Deep Gray Matter Pathology in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Is Associated with White Matter Lesion Burden and Atrophy but Not with Cortical Atrophy: A Diffusion Tensor MRI Study, American Journal of Neuroradiology, vol.35, issue.5, pp.912-921, 2014.
DOI : 10.3174/ajnr.A3788

A. Cifelli, M. Arridge, P. Jezzard, M. Esiri, J. Palace et al., Thalamic neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis, Annals of Neurology, vol.87, issue.5, pp.650-653, 2002.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.10326

I. Pirko, C. Lucchinetti, S. Sriram, and R. Bakshi, Gray matter involvement in multiple sclerosis, Neurology, vol.68, issue.9, pp.634-676, 2007.
DOI : 10.1212/01.wnl.0000250267.85698.7a

M. Caligiuri, S. Barone, A. Cherubini, A. Augimeri, C. Chiriaco et al., The relationship between regional microstructural abnormalities of the corpus callosum and physical and cognitive disability in relapsing???remitting multiple sclerosis, NeuroImage: Clinical, vol.7, pp.28-33, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.008

J. Sumowski, Cognitive Reserve as a Useful Concept for Early Intervention Research in Multiple Sclerosis, Frontiers in Neurology, vol.8, issue.9, p.176, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/nrneurol.2012.136

N. Muhlert and I. Penner, Understanding intellectual enrichment: how cognitive reserve impacts on hippocampal volume in multiple sclerosis, European Journal of Neurology, vol.262, issue.1, pp.9-10, 2016.
DOI : 10.1111/ene.12674

M. Rovaris, M. Rocca, F. Barkhof, M. Calabrese, D. Stefano et al., Relationship between brain MRI lesion load and short-term disease evolution in non-disabling MS: a large-scale, multicentre study, Multiple Sclerosis Journal, vol.73, issue.3, pp.319-345, 2011.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.21102

L. Fisniku, P. Brex, D. Altmann, K. Miszkiel, C. Benton et al., Disability and T2 MRI lesions: a 20-year follow-up of patients with relapse onset of multiple sclerosis, Brain, vol.131, issue.3, pp.808-825, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awm329

J. Berneiser, J. Wendt, M. Grothe, C. Kessler, A. Hamm et al., Impaired recognition of emotional facial expressions in patients with multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders, pp.482-490, 2014.

F. Tona, N. Petsas, E. Sbardella, L. Prosperini, M. Carmellini et al., Multiple Sclerosis: Altered Thalamic Resting-State Functional Connectivity and Its Effect on Cognitive Function, Radiology, vol.271, issue.3, pp.814-835, 2014.
DOI : 10.1148/radiol.14131688

F. Tovar-moll, I. Evangelou, A. Chiu, N. Richert, J. Ostuni et al., Thalamic Involvement and Its Impact on Clinical Disability in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study at 3T, American Journal of Neuroradiology, vol.30, issue.7, pp.1380-1386, 2009.
DOI : 10.3174/ajnr.A1564