E. Noether, Invariant variation problems, Transport Theory and Statistical Physics, vol.19, issue.3, pp.186-207, 1971.
DOI : 10.1080/00411457108231446
URL : http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0503066

G. Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican, 1967.

L. Ivanovich-sedov, J. P. Nowacki, and R. Hsieh, Mechanics of continuous media, World Scientific, vol.1, 1997.

R. Phillips-feynman, B. Robert, M. Leighton, and . Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Basic Books, vol.1, 1963.

E. Cosserat and F. Cosserat, Théorie des corps déformables, 1909.

P. G. De-gennes and J. Prost, The Physics of Liquid Crystals, 1993.

A. Fruleux, R. Kawai, and K. Sekimoto, Momentum Transfer in Nonequilibrium Steady States, Physical Review Letters, vol.108, issue.16, p.160601, 2012.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.160601

F. Scott, D. Gilbert, and . Epel, Ecological developmental biology: integrating epigenetics, medicine, and evolution, 2009.

S. Yumura, G. Itoh, Y. Kikuta, T. Kikuchi, T. Kitanishi-yumura et al., Cell-scale dynamic recycling and cortical flow of the actinâ ? A ¸ Smyosin cytoskeleton for rapid cell migration, Biology Open, 2012.

J. T. Bonner, D. S. Barkley, E. M. Hall, T. M. Konijn, J. W. Mason et al., Acrasin, acrasinase, and the sensitivity to acrasin in Dictyostelium discoideum, Developmental Biology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.72-87, 1969.
DOI : 10.1016/0012-1606(69)90005-0

P. Fisher, G. Merkl, and . Gerisch, Quantitative analysis of cell motility and chemotaxis in Dictyostelium discoideum by using an image processing system and a novel chemotaxis chamber providing stationary chemical gradients, The Journal of Cell Biology, vol.108, issue.3, pp.973-984, 1989.
DOI : 10.1083/jcb.108.3.973

K. Inouye and I. Takeuchi, Motive force of the migrating pseudoplasmodium of the cellular slime mould dictyostelium discoideum, Journal of Cell Science, vol.41, issue.1, pp.53-64, 1980.

K. Inouye, Measurement of the motive force of the migrating slug ofDictyostelium discoideum by a centrifuge method, Protoplasma, vol.25, issue.3, pp.171-177, 1007.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01282310

T. Umeda, A mathematical model for cell sorting, migration and shape in the slug stage of dictyostelium discoideum, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, vol.51, pp.485-500, 1989.

B. Vasiev and C. J. Weijer, Modelling of Dictyostelium discoideum slug migration, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.223, issue.3, pp.347-359, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-5193(03)00103-6

G. M. Odell and J. T. Bonner, How the Dictyostelium Discoideum Grex Crawls, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.312, issue.1157, pp.312487-525, 1157.
DOI : 10.1098/rstb.1986.0016

K. Sekimoto, Kinetic Characterization of Heat Bath and the Energetics of Thermal Ratchet Models, Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, vol.66, issue.5, pp.1234-1237, 1997.
DOI : 10.1143/JPSJ.66.1234

C. Gruber and J. Piasecki, Stationary motion of the adiabatic piston. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, pp.412-423, 1999.

E. Kestemont, C. Van-den-broeck, and M. M. Mansour, The ???adiabatic??? piston: And yet it moves, Europhysics Letters (EPL), vol.49, issue.2, p.143, 2000.
DOI : 10.1209/epl/i2000-00129-8

C. Van-den-broeck, R. Kawai, and P. Meurs, Microscopic Analysis of a Thermal Brownian Motor, Physical Review Letters, vol.93, issue.9, p.90601, 2004.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.090601

H. Elliott and . Lieb, Some problems in statistical mechanics that i would like to see solved, Physica A, vol.263, pp.491-499, 1999.

R. Phillips-feynman, B. Robert, M. Leighton, and . Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Basic Books, vol.1, 1963.

J. L. Lebowitz, Stationary Nonequilibrium Gibbsian Ensembles, Physical Review, vol.114, issue.5, pp.1192-1202, 1959.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRev.114.1192

J. Piasecki and C. Gruber, From the adiabatic piston to macroscopic motion induced by fluctuations. Physica A: Statistical and Theoretical Physics, pp.463-472, 1999.

C. Gruber and J. Piasecki, Stationary motion of the adiabatic piston, Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, vol.268, issue.3-4, pp.412-442, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0378-4371(99)00095-3

. Ch, L. Gruber, and . Frachebourg, On the adiabatic properties of a stochastic adiabatic wall: Evolution, stationary non-equilibrium, and equilibrium states, Physica A, vol.272, pp.392-428, 1999.

C. Gruber, A. Sãl-'verine-pache, and . Lesne, Two-time-scale relaxation towards thermal equilibrium of the enigmatic piston, Journal of Statistical Physics, vol.112, pp.5-61177, 2003.

C. Van-den-broeck, P. Meurs, and R. Kawai, From Maxwell demon to Brownian motor, New Journal of Physics, vol.7, p.10, 2005.
DOI : 10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/010

G. Costantini, U. Marini-bettolo, A. Marconi, and . Puglisi, Noise rectification and fluctuations of an asymmetric inelastic piston, EPL (Europhysics Letters), vol.82, issue.5, p.50008, 2008.
DOI : 10.1209/0295-5075/82/50008

J. Talbot, A. Burdeau, and P. Viot, Analysis of a class of granular motors in the Brownian limit, Physical Review E, vol.82, issue.1, p.11135, 2010.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.82.011135

G. Costantini, U. M. , B. Marconi, and A. Puglisi, Granular Brownian ratchet model, Physical Review E, vol.75, issue.6, p.61124, 2007.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.75.061124

B. Cleuren and C. Van-den-broeck, Granular Brownian motor, Europhysics Letters (EPL), vol.77, issue.5, p.50003, 2007.
DOI : 10.1209/0295-5075/77/50003

V. Alexander, J. Plyukhin, and . Schofield, Langevin equation for the extended rayleigh model with an asymmetric bath, Physical Review E, vol.69, issue.2, p.21112, 2004.

R. Kawai, A. Fruleux, and K. Sekimoto, A hard disc analysis of momentum deficit due to dissipation, Physica Scripta, vol.86, issue.5, p.58508, 2012.
DOI : 10.1088/0031-8949/86/05/058508

K. Sekimoto, A. Fruleux, R. Kawai, N. Ridling, J. M. Parrondo et al., From adiabatic piston to nonequilibrium hydrodynamics. arXiv preprint arXiv:1301 Criticism of Feynman's analysis of the ratchet as an engine, Am. J. Phys, vol.7035, issue.64, pp.1125-1130, 1996.

M. M. Mansour, A. L. Garcia, and F. Baras, Hydrodynamic description of the adiabatic piston, Physical Review E, vol.73, issue.1, p.16121, 2006.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.73.016121
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00020664

A. Harald, W. G. Posch, and . Hoover, Equilibrium and nonequilibrium lyapunov spectra for dense fluids and solids, p.2175, 1989.

D. Henderson, L. Blum, and J. L. Lebowitz, An exact formula for the contact value of the density profile of a system of charged hard spheres near a charged wall, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry, vol.102, issue.3, pp.315-319, 1979.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-0728(79)80459-3

D. Henderson and L. Blum, Some comments regarding the pressure tensor and contact theorem in a nonhomogeneous electrolyte, The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol.75, issue.4, pp.2025-2026, 1981.
DOI : 10.1063/1.442238

H. Struchtrup, Macroscopic Transport Equations for Rarefied Gas Flows -Approximation Methods in Kinetic Theory, 2005.

S. Teruhisa, N. Komatsu, S. Nakagawa, H. Sasa, and . Tasaki, Steady-state thermodynamics for heat conduction: Microscopic derivation, Phys. Rev. Lett, vol.100, p.230602, 2008.

L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics (Course of Theoretical Physics, 2000.

P. Curie, Sur la symétrie dans les phénomènes physiaues, symétrie d'un champ électriaue et d'un champ magnétique, ) 3ème série, p.393, 1894.

Y. Oono and M. Paniconi, Steady state thermodynamics. Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, pp.29-44, 1998.

C. Van-den-broeck, E. Kestemont, and M. Malek-mansour, Heat conductivity by a shared piston, Europhysics Letters (EPL), vol.56, issue.6, p.771, 2001.
DOI : 10.1209/epl/i2001-00587-x

A. Philippe, J. Martin, and . Piasecki, Thermalization of a particle by dissipative collisions, EPLEurophysics Letters), vol.46, issue.5, p.613, 1999.

M. Geoffrey, . Cooper, E. Robert, and . Hausman, The cell, 2000.

S. Mary and . Tyler, Developmental biology: a guide for experimental study, 1994.

B. Kenneth and . Raper, Pseudoplasmodium formation and organization in dictyostelium discoideum, J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc, vol.56, pp.241-282, 1940.

K. Jermyn and J. Williams, An analysis of culmination in dictyostelium using prestalk and stalk-specific cell autonomous markers, Development, vol.111, issue.3, pp.779-787, 1991.

B. Shaffer, Aggregation in Cellular Slime Moulds: in vitro Isolation of Acrasin, Nature, vol.103, issue.4361, 1953.
DOI : 10.1002/jez.1401060102

J. Bonner, E. Barkley, . Hall, . Tm-konijn, G. Mason et al., Acrasin, acrasinase, and the sensitivity to acrasin in Dictyostelium discoideum, Developmental Biology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.72-87, 1969.
DOI : 10.1016/0012-1606(69)90005-0

F. Evelyn, . Keller, A. Lee, and . Segel, Initiation of slime mold aggregation viewed as an instability, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.26, issue.3, pp.399-415, 1970.

J. John, J. Tyson, and . Murray, Cyclic amp waves during aggregation of dictyostelium amoebae, Development, vol.106, issue.3, pp.421-426, 1989.

A. Robertson, J. David, . Drage, H. Morrel, and . Cohen, Control of Aggregation in Dictyostelium discoideum by an External Periodic Pulse of Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate, Science, vol.175, issue.4019, pp.333-335, 1972.
DOI : 10.1126/science.175.4019.333

B. Shaffer, Secretion of cyclic AMP induced by cyclic AMP in the cellular slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum, Nature, vol.134, issue.5509, 1975.
DOI : 10.1038/255549a0

J. Cornelis and . Weijer, Dictyostelium morphogenesis, Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, vol.14, issue.4, pp.392-398, 2004.

D. Dormann and C. J. Weijer, Propagating chemoattractant waves coordinate periodic cell movement in dictyostelium slugs, Development, vol.128, issue.22, pp.4535-4543, 2001.

D. Dormann, B. Vasiev, J. Cornelis, and . Weijer, Propagating waves control Dictyostelium discoideum morphogenesis, Biophysical Chemistry, vol.72, issue.1-2, pp.21-35, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0301-4622(98)00120-3

A. C. Callan-jones and R. Voituriez, Active gel model of amoeboid cell motility, New Journal of Physics, vol.15, issue.2, p.25022, 2013.
DOI : 10.1088/1367-2630/15/2/025022
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00813222

R. J. Hawkins, M. Piel, G. Faure-andre, A. M. Lennon-dumenil, J. F. Joanny et al., Pushing off the Walls: A Mechanism of Cell Motility in Confinement, Physical Review Letters, vol.102, issue.5, p.58103, 2009.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.058103

M. Kitami, The motive force of the migrating pseudoplasmodium of dictyostelium discoideum under dark and light conditions, Journal of Cell Science, vol.56, issue.1, pp.131-140, 1982.

S. Ramaswamy, The Mechanics and Statistics of Active Matter, Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics, vol.1, issue.1, pp.323-345, 2010.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev-conmatphys-070909-104101

F. Backouche, . Haviv, A. Groswasser, and . Bernheim-groswasser, Active gels: dynamics of patterning and self-organization, Physical Biology, vol.3, issue.4, p.264, 2006.
DOI : 10.1088/1478-3975/3/4/004

D. Mizuno, C. Tardin, C. Schmidt, and F. Mackintosh, Nonequilibrium Mechanics of Active Cytoskeletal Networks, Science, vol.315, issue.5810, pp.315370-373, 2007.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1134404

F. Nédélec, T. Surrey, and A. Maggs, Dynamic concentration of motors in microtubule arrays. Physical review letters, p.3192, 2001.

B. Alexander, . Verkhovsky, M. Tatyana, . Svitkina, G. Gary et al., Self-polarization and directional motility of cytoplasm, Current Biology, vol.9, issue.1, pp.11-12, 1999.

A. Ahmadi, C. Marchetti, B. Tanniemola, and . Liverpool, Hydrodynamics of isotropic and liquid crystalline active polymer solutions, Physical Review E, vol.74, issue.6, p.61913, 2006.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.74.061913

K. Kruse and F. Jülicher, Actively contracting bundles of polar filaments. Physical review letters, p.1778, 2000.

K. Kruse and F. Jülicher, Self-organization and mechanical properties of active filament bundles, Physical Review E, vol.67, issue.5, p.51913, 2003.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.67.051913

K. Kruse and F. Jülicher, Dynamics and mechanics of motor-filament systems, The European Physical Journal E, vol.94, issue.4, pp.459-465, 2006.
DOI : 10.1140/epje/i2006-10036-x

B. Tanniemola, C. Liverpool, and . Marchetti, Instabilities of isotropic solutions of active polar filaments. Physical review letters, p.138102, 2003.

S. Fürthauer, F. Strempel, and . Jülicher, Active Chiral Processes in Thin Films, Physical Review Letters, vol.110, issue.4, p.48103, 2013.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.048103

K. Takiguchi, Heavy Meromyosin Induces Sliding Movements between Antiparallel Actin Filaments, The Journal of Biochemistry, vol.109, issue.4, pp.520-527, 1991.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a123414

Y. Tanaka-takiguchi, T. Kakei, A. Tanimura, A. Takagi, M. Honda et al., The Elongation and Contraction of Actin Bundles are Induced by Double-headed Myosins in a Motor Concentration-dependent Manner, Journal of Molecular Biology, vol.341, issue.2, pp.467-476, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.06.019

P. Martin, . Parodi, S. Peter, and . Pershan, Unified Hydrodynamic Theory for Crystals, Liquid Crystals, and Normal Fluids, Physical Review A, vol.6, issue.6, p.2401, 1972.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevA.6.2401

K. Kruse, J. F. Joanny, F. Jülicher, J. Prost, and K. Sekimoto, Asters, Vortices, and Rotating Spirals in Active Gels of Polar Filaments, Physical Review Letters, vol.92, issue.7, p.78101, 2004.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.078101

F. Juelicher, J. Kruse, J. Prost, and . Joanny, Active behavior of the Cytoskeleton, Physics Reports, vol.449, issue.1-3, pp.3-28, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.physrep.2007.02.018

A. and F. Julicher, Hydrodynamics of active permeating gels, New Journal of Physics, vol.13, issue.9, p.93027, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00624806

J. Joanny, . Jülicher, J. Kruse, and . Prost, Hydrodynamic theory for multi-component active polar gels, New Journal of Physics, vol.9, issue.11, p.422, 2007.
DOI : 10.1088/1367-2630/9/11/422

G. Sr-de and P. Mazur, Non-equilibrium thermodynamics, 1984.

K. Kruse, J. F. Joanny, F. Jülicher, J. Prost, and K. Sekimoto, Generic theory of active polar gels: a paradigm for cytoskeletal dynamics, The European Physical Journal E, vol.9, issue.1, pp.5-16, 1140.
DOI : 10.1140/epje/e2005-00002-5

D. Smith, F. Ziebert, D. Humphrey, C. Duggan, M. Steinbeck et al., Molecular Motor-Induced Instabilities and Cross Linkers Determine Biopolymer Organization, Biophysical Journal, vol.93, issue.12, pp.934445-4452, 2007.
DOI : 10.1529/biophysj.106.095919

G. Salbreux, J. Prost, and . Joanny, Hydrodynamics of cellular cortical flows and the formation of contractile rings. Physical review letters, p.58102, 2009.

J. Joanny and J. Prost, Active gels as a description of the actin???myosin cytoskeleton, HFSP Journal, vol.3, issue.2, pp.94-104, 2009.
DOI : 10.2976/1.3054712

D. Thomas, . Pollard, G. Gary, and . Borisy, Cellular motility driven by assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, Cell, vol.112, issue.4, pp.453-465, 2003.

K. Keren, Z. Pincus, M. Greg, . Allen, L. Erin et al., Mechanism of shape determination in motile cells, Nature, vol.15, issue.7194, pp.453475-480, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/nature06952

F. Ziebert, S. Swaminathan, and I. S. Aranson, Model for self-polarization and motility of keratocyte fragments, Journal of The Royal Society Interface, vol.6, issue.8, pp.1084-1092, 2012.
DOI : 10.1038/nmat1934

J. Ryan, N. Petrie, . Gavara, S. Richard, . Chadwick et al., Nonpolarized signaling reveals two distinct modes of 3d cell migration, The Journal of cell biology, vol.197, issue.3, pp.439-455, 2012.

T. Lämmermann, L. Bernhard, . Bader, J. Susan, T. Monkley et al., Rapid leukocyte migration by integrin-independent flowing and squeezing, Nature, vol.168, issue.7191, pp.45351-55, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/nature06887

A. Bernheim-groswasser, S. Wiesner, M. Roy, M. Golsteyn, C. Carlier et al., The dynamics of actin-based motility depend on surface parameters, Nature, vol.53, issue.6886, pp.417308-311, 2002.
DOI : 10.1083/jcb.153.4.881

A. Van-oudenaarden and J. A. Theriot, Cooperative symmetry-breaking by actin polymerization in a model for cell motility, Nature Cell Biology, vol.1, issue.8, pp.493-499, 1999.
DOI : 10.1038/70281

M. Edward and . Purcell, Life at low reynolds number, Am. J. Phys, vol.45, issue.1, pp.3-11, 1977.

S. Childress, Mechanics of swimming and flying, 1981.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511569593

M. Arroyo, L. Heltai, D. Millán, and A. Desimone, Reverse engineering the euglenoid movement, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp.17874-17879, 2012.

C. Brennen and H. Winet, Fluid Mechanics of Propulsion by Cilia and Flagella, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, vol.9, issue.1, pp.339-398, 1977.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.fl.09.010177.002011

A. Baskaran and M. Marchetti, Statistical mechanics and hydrodynamics of bacterial suspensions, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp.15567-15572, 2009.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0906586106

J. Toner, Y. Tu, and S. Ramaswamy, Hydrodynamics and phases of flocks, Annals of Physics, vol.318, issue.1, pp.170-244, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.aop.2005.04.011

T. Vicsek and A. Zafeiris, Collective motion, Physics Reports, vol.517, issue.3-4, pp.3-471, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.physrep.2012.03.004

R. , A. Simha, and S. Ramaswamy, Hydrodynamic fluctuations and instabilities in ordered suspensions of self-propelled particles, Phys. Rev. Lett, vol.89, p.58101, 2002.

A. Baskaran and M. Marchetti, Hydrodynamics of self-propelled hard rods, Physical Review E, vol.77, issue.1, p.11920, 2008.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.77.011920

M. Leoni, B. Tanniemola, and . Liverpool, Swimmers in thin films: from swarming to hydrodynamic instabilities. Physical review letters, p.238102, 2010.

T. Vicsek, A. Czirók, E. Ben-jacob, I. Cohen, and O. Shochet, Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles. Physical review letters, p.1226, 1995.

C. Wolgemuth, E. Hoiczyk, D. Kaiser, and G. Oster, How Myxobacteria Glide, Current Biology, vol.12, issue.5, pp.369-377, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00716-9
URL : http://doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(02)00716-9

J. Toner and Y. Tu, Flocks, herds, and schools: A quantitative theory of flocking, Physical Review E, vol.58, issue.4, p.4828, 1998.
DOI : 10.1103/PhysRevE.58.4828

S. Igor, . Aranson, S. Lev, and . Tsimring, Patterns and collective behavior in granular media: Theoretical concepts, Reviews of modern physics, vol.78, issue.2, p.641, 2006.

J. Deseigne, O. Dauchot, and H. Chaté, Collective motion of vibrated polar disks. Physical review letters, p.98001, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01422397

A. Kudrolli, G. Lumay, D. Volfson, and L. S. Tsimring, Swarming and swirling in selfpropelled polar granular rods. Physical review letters, p.58001, 2008.

E. Bertin, M. Droz, and G. Grégoire, Hydrodynamic equations for self-propelled particles: microscopic derivation and stability analysis, Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, vol.42, issue.44, p.42445001, 2009.
DOI : 10.1088/1751-8113/42/44/445001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ensl-00434536

H. Gruler, M. Dewald, and . Eberhardt, Nematic liquid crystals formed by living amoeboid cells, The European Physical Journal B, vol.11, issue.1, pp.187-192, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/s100510050928

S. Ramaswamy, J. Simha, and . Toner, Active nematics on a substrate: Giant number fluctuations and long-time tails, Europhysics Letters (EPL), vol.62, issue.2, p.196, 2003.
DOI : 10.1209/epl/i2003-00346-7

V. Narayan, S. Ramaswamy, and N. Menon, Long-lived giant number fluctuations in a swarming granular nematic Simple model for active nematics: quasi-longrange order and giant fluctuations, 121] Hugues Chaté, Francesco Ginelli, and Raúl Montagne, pp.317105-108, 2006.

F. Peruani, J. Starruß, V. Jakovljevic, L. Søgaard-andersen, A. Deutsch et al., Collective motion and nonequilibrium cluster formation in colonies of gliding bacteria. Physical review letters, p.98102, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00905217

F. Ginelli, F. Peruani, M. Bär, and H. Chaté, Large-scale collective properties of self-propelled rods. Physical review letters, p.184502, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00905223

M. Rauzi and P. Lenne, Cortical Forces in Cell Shape Changes and Tissue Morphogenesis, Forces and Tension in Development, pp.93-144, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-12-385065-2.00004-9
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00630215

T. Lecuit and P. Lenne, Cell surface mechanics and the control of cell shape, tissue patterns and morphogenesis, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, vol.132, issue.8, pp.633-644, 2007.
DOI : 10.1038/nrm2222
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00165487

M. Zajac, G. L. Jones, and J. A. Glazier, Simulating convergent extension by way of anisotropic differential adhesion, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.222, issue.2, pp.247-259, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-5193(03)00033-X

J. Käfer, T. Hayashi, F. Athanasius, . Marée, W. Richard et al., Cell adhesion and cortex contractility determine cell patterning in the Drosophilaretina, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.104, issue.47, pp.18549-18554, 2007.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0704235104

H. Princen and A. Kiss, Rheology of foams and highly concentrated emulsions, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol.112, issue.2, pp.427-437, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9797(86)90111-6

S. Eaton and F. Jülicher, Cell flow and tissue polarity patterns. Current opinion in genetics & development, pp.747-752, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gde.2011.08.010

B. Aigouy, R. Farhadifar, B. Douglas, A. Staple, J. Sagner et al., Cell Flow Reorients the Axis of Planar Polarity in the Wing Epithelium of Drosophila, Cell, vol.142, issue.5, pp.773-786, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.042

J. Ranft, M. Basan, J. Elgeti, J. Joanny, J. Prost et al., Fluidization of tissues by cell division and apoptosis, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp.20863-20868, 2010.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.1011086107

F. Graner, A. James, and . Glazier, Simulation of biological cell sorting using a two-dimensional extended potts model. Physical review letters, p.2013, 1992.

S. Sandersius, C. J. Weijer, and T. Newman, Emergent cell and tissue dynamics from subcellular modeling of active biomechanical processes, Physical Biology, vol.8, issue.4, p.45007, 2011.
DOI : 10.1088/1478-3975/8/4/045007

S. Sandersius, C. J. Chuai, T. Weijer, and . Newman, A ???chemotactic dipole??? mechanism for large-scale vortex motion during primitive streak formation in the chick embryo, Physical Biology, vol.8, issue.4, p.45008, 2011.
DOI : 10.1088/1478-3975/8/4/045008

J. H. Irving and J. G. Kirkwood, The Statistical Mechanical Theory of Transport Processes. IV. The Equations of Hydrodynamics, The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol.18, issue.6, p.817, 1950.
DOI : 10.1063/1.1747782

J. Zhijian-yang, X. Wu, and X. Li, A generalized irving-kirkwood formula for the calculation of stress in molecular dynamics models Mesoscopic formulas of linear and angular momentum fluxes, The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol.137, issue.13, 2012.

W. Günther, zur statik und kinematik des cosseratschen kontinuums, Abhandlungen der Braunschweigischen Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, vol.10, 1958.

I. Vardoulakis, lectures on cosserat continuum mechanics with application to the mechanics of granular media. MEDIGRA, EU Ideas Program, 2008.

J. H. Jeans, The Dynamical Theory of Gases, 1960.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511694370

T. L. Hill, Statistical Mechanics, American Journal of Physics, vol.25, issue.4, 1956.
DOI : 10.1119/1.1934423

D. H. Tsai, The virial theorem and stress calculation in molecular dynamics, The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol.70, issue.3, p.1375, 1979.
DOI : 10.1063/1.437577

R. Farhadifar, J. Röper, B. Aigouy, S. Eaton, and F. Jülicher, The Influence of Cell Mechanics, Cell-Cell Interactions, and Proliferation on Epithelial Packing, Current Biology, vol.17, issue.24, pp.2095-2104, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.049

F. Alonso-marroquín, Static equations of the Cosserat continuum derived from intra-granular stresses, Granular Matter, vol.26, issue.4, pp.189-196, 2011.
DOI : 10.1007/s10035-011-0264-5

B. Shaffer, Cell movement within aggregates of the slime mould dictyostelium discoideum revealed by surface markers, Journal of embryology and experimental morphology, vol.13, issue.1, pp.97-117, 1965.

A. Paul, W. Farnsworth, and . Loomis, A gradient in the thickness of the surface sheath in pseudoplasmodia ofdictyostelium discoideum, Developmental biology, vol.46, issue.2, pp.349-357, 1975.

T. John and . Bonner, A descriptive study of the development of the slime mold dictyostelium discoideum, American Journal of Botany, vol.31, pp.175-182, 1944.

M. Abramowitz, A. Irene, and . Stegun, Handbook of mathematical functions: with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables, 1972.

L. Eichinger, B. Koppel, A. A. Noegel, M. Schleicher, M. Schliwa et al., Mechanical perturbation elicits a phenotypic difference between Dictyostelium wild-type cells and cytoskeletal mutants, Biophysical Journal, vol.70, issue.2, pp.1054-1060, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/S0006-3495(96)79651-0

J. Rieu, T. Saito, H. Delanoe-ayari, Y. Sawada, and R. R. Kay, slugs: Anterior-like cells may provide the motive force for the prespore zone, Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton, vol.34, issue.12, pp.1073-1086, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/cm.20411

B. J. Haupt, M. Osbourn, R. Spanhoff, S. De-keijzer, A. Muller-taubenberger et al., in Relation to Chemotaxis, Langmuir, vol.23, issue.18, pp.9352-9357, 2007.
DOI : 10.1021/la700693f