R. Af-klint, N. Mazzaro, J. Nielsen, T. Sinkjaer, and M. Grey, Load Rather Than Length Sensitive Feedback Contributes to Soleus Muscle Activity During Human Treadmill Walking, VII. References 1, pp.2747-2756, 2010.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00547.2009

. Klint, Force related afferent feedback to the triceps surae locomotor activity during human walking -Thesis, 2009.

Z. Aftab, T. Robert, and P. Wieber, Predicting multiple step placements for human balance recovery tasks, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.45, issue.16, pp.2804-2809, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.08.038
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00850934

J. Aimonetti, J. Vedel, A. Schmied, and S. Pagni, Mechanical cutaneous stimulation alters Ia presynaptic inhibition in human wrist extensor muscles: a single motor unit study, The Journal of Physiology, vol.272, issue.1, pp.137-145, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.0137m.x

R. Alexander, Stride length and speed for adults, children, and fossil hominids, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol.38, issue.1, pp.23-27, 1984.
DOI : 10.1002/ajpa.1330630105

R. Alexander, Bipedal animals, and their differences from humans, Journal of Anatomy, vol.204, issue.5, pp.321-330, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0021-8782.2004.00289.x
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1571302

E. Altenmüller, W. Berger, T. Prokop, M. Trippel, and V. Dietz, Modulation of sural nerve somatosensory evoked potentials during stance and different phases of the step-cycle, Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Evoked Potentials Section, vol.96, issue.6, pp.516-525, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0013-4694(95)00093-E

K. Amunts, V. Istomin, A. Schleicher, and K. Zilles, Postnatal development of the human primary motor cortex: a quantitative cytoarchitectonic analysis, Anatomy and Embryology, vol.192, issue.6, pp.557-571, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00187186

F. Anderson and M. Pandy, Static and dynamic optimization solutions for gait are practically equivalent, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.34, issue.2, pp.153-161, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0021-9290(00)00155-X

M. Andersen, M. Damsgaard, and J. Rasmussen, Kinematic analysis of over-determinate biomechanical systems, Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, vol.12, issue.4, pp.371-384, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2003.11.013

. Andre-thomas and S. Autgarden, Locomotion from pre-to post-natal life: how the newborn begins to acquire psychosensory functions In: Spastics Society Medical Education and Information Unit in association with W. Heinemann Medical Books, Clinics in developmental medicine Lavenham (UK), pp.1-21, 1966.

C. Arellano, C. Layne, O. Connor, D. Scott-pandorf, M. Kurz et al., Does Load Carrying Influence Sagittal Plane Locomotive Stability?, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, vol.41, issue.3, pp.620-627, 2009.
DOI : 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818a0ea4

D. Armstrong, The supraspinal control of mammalian locomotion., The Journal of Physiology, vol.405, issue.1, pp.1-37, 1988.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1988.sp017319

V. Bachmann, R. Muller, H. Van-hedel, and V. Dietz, Vertical perturbations of human gait: organisation and adaptation of leg muscle responses, Experimental Brain Research, vol.79, issue.1, pp.123-130, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-007-1215-6

D. Barthélémy, M. Grey, J. Nielsen, and L. Bouyer, Involvement of the corticospinal tract in the control of human gait, Prog Brain Res, vol.192, pp.181-197, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-444-53355-5.00012-9

J. Basmajian, The human bicycle: an ultimate biological convenience, Orthop Clin North Am, vol.7, pp.1027-1029, 1976.

C. Bastiaanse, J. Duysens, and V. Dietz, Modulation of cutaneous reflexes by load receptor input during human walking, Experimental Brain Research, vol.507, issue.2, pp.189-198, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210000511

L. Bent, B. Mcfadyen, V. Merkley, P. Kennedy, and J. Inglis, Magnitude effects of galvanic vestibular stimulation on the trajectory of human gait, Neuroscience Letters, vol.279, issue.3, pp.157-160, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0304-3940(99)00989-1

L. Bent, J. Inglis, and B. Mcfadyen, Vestibular contributions across the execution of a voluntary forward step, Experimental Brain Research, vol.143, issue.1, pp.100-105, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-001-0967-7

L. Bent, J. Inglis, and B. Mcfadyen, When is Vestibular Information Important During Walking?, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.92, issue.3, pp.1269-1275, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.01260.2003

J. Bertram and A. Ruina, Multiple Walking Speed???frequency Relations are Predicted by Constrained Optimization, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.209, issue.4, pp.445-453, 2001.
DOI : 10.1006/jtbi.2001.2279

N. Bernstein, The coordination and regulation of movements, 1967.

R. Bogey, A. Gitter, and L. Barnes, Determination of ankle muscle power in normal gait using an EMG-to-force processing approach, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.46-54, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jelekin.2008.09.013

Y. Brenière, M. Do, and J. Sanchez, A biomechanical study of the gait initiation process, J Biophysique et Medecine Nucléaire, vol.5, pp.197-205, 1981.

Y. Breniere and M. Do, When and how does steady state gait movement induced from upright posture begin?, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.19, issue.12, pp.1035-1040, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(86)90120-X

Y. Brenière and M. Do, Control of Gait Initiation, Journal of Motor Behavior, vol.15, issue.4, pp.235-240, 1991.
DOI : 10.1016/0167-9457(86)90012-6

Y. Brenière, Why We Walk the Way We Do, Journal of Motor Behavior, vol.93, issue.4, pp.291-298, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4115(08)60740-2

B. Bressler and F. Berry, Energy and Power in the Leg During Normal Level Walking Prosthetic Devices Research Project, series I I, issue 15, 1951.

B. Brody, H. Kinney, A. Kloman, and F. Gilles, Sequence of Central Nervous System Myelination in Human Infancy. I. An Autopsy Study of Myelination, Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, vol.46, issue.3, pp.283-301, 1987.
DOI : 10.1097/00005072-198705000-00005

D. Burke, N. Skuse, and D. Stuart, The regularity of muscle spindle discharge in man., The Journal of Physiology, vol.291, issue.1, pp.277-290, 1979.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1979.sp012812

B. Brandell, Functional roles of the calf and vastus muscles in locomotion, Am J Phys Med, pp.59-74, 1977.

T. Caderby, E. Yiou, N. Peyrot, B. Bonazzi, and G. Dalleau, Detection of swing heel-off event in gait initiation using force-plate data, Gait & Posture, vol.37, issue.3, pp.463-466, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.08.011
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00811705

S. Cain, K. Gordon, and D. Ferris, Locomotor adaptation to a powered ankle-foot orthosis depends on control method, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, vol.4, issue.1, pp.48-58, 2007.
DOI : 10.1186/1743-0003-4-48

C. Capaday and R. Stein, Difference in the amplitude of the human soleus H reflex during walking and running., The Journal of Physiology, vol.392, issue.1, pp.513-522, 1987.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016794

G. Cappellini, Y. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, R. Poppele, and F. Lacquaniti, Migration of Motor Pool Activity in the Spinal Cord Reflects Body Mechanics in Human Locomotion, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.104, issue.6, pp.3064-3073, 2010.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00318.2010

T. Caderby, E. Yiou, N. Peyrot, B. Bonazzi, and G. Dalleau, Detection of swing heel-off event in gait initiation using force-plate data. Gait Posture, pp.966-636200316, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00811705

S. Carlsöö, The initiation of walking, Cells Tissues Organs, vol.65, issue.1-3, pp.1-9, 1966.
DOI : 10.1159/000142864

G. Cappellini, Y. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, R. Poppele, and F. Lacquaniti, Migration of Motor Pool Activity in the Spinal Cord Reflects Body Mechanics in Human Locomotion, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.104, issue.6, pp.3064-3073, 2010.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00318.2010

C. Casasnovas, L. Cano, A. Albertí, M. Céspedes, and G. Rigo, Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease, Foot & Ankle Specialist, vol.1, issue.9, pp.350-354, 2008.
DOI : 10.1177/1938640008326247

G. Cavagna, F. Saibene, and R. Margaria, External work in walking, J Appl Physiol, vol.18, pp.1-9, 1963.

G. Cavagna and R. Margaria, Mechanics of walking, J Appl Physiol, vol.21, pp.271-278, 1966.

G. Cavagna, H. Thys, and A. Zamboni, The sources of external work in level walking and running., The Journal of Physiology, vol.262, issue.3, pp.639-657, 1976.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011613

G. Cavagna and M. Kaneko, Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running, The Journal of Physiology, vol.268, issue.2, pp.467-481, 1977.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1977.sp011866

G. Cavagna and P. Franzetti, The determinants of the step frequency in walking in humans., The Journal of Physiology, vol.373, issue.1, pp.235-242, 1986.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016044

G. Cavagna, P. Willems, and N. Heglund, The role of gravity in human walking: pendular energy exchange, external work and optimal speed, The Journal of Physiology, vol.198, issue.3, pp.657-668, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00657.x

G. Cavagna, P. Willems, M. Legramandi, and N. Heglund, Pendular energy transduction within the step in human walking, J Exp Biol, vol.205, pp.3413-3122, 2002.

N. Chastan, M. Do, F. Bonneville, F. Torny, F. Bloch et al., Gait and balance disorders in Parkinson's disease: Impaired active braking of the fall of centre of gravity, Movement Disorders, vol.130, issue.2, pp.188-195, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/mds.22269

N. Chastan, G. Westby, D. Montcel, . St, M. Do et al., Influence of sensory inputs and motor demands on the control of the centre of mass velocity during gait initiation in humans, Neuroscience Letters, vol.469, issue.3, pp.400-404, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.038

G. Cheron, A. Bengoetxea, E. Bouillot, F. Lacquaniti, and D. B. , Early emergence of temporal co-ordination of lower limb segments elevation angles in human locomotion, Neuroscience Letters, vol.308, issue.2, pp.123-127, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0304-3940(01)01925-5

G. Cheron, E. Bouillot, D. B. Bengoetxea, A. Draye, J. Lacquaniti et al., Development of a kinematic coordination pattern in toddler locomotion: planar covariation, Experimental Brain Research, vol.137, issue.3-4, pp.455-466, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210000663

G. Cheron, M. Duvinage, D. Saedeleer, C. Castermans, T. Bengoetxea et al., Ivanenko Y (2012) From spinal central pattern generators to cortical network: integrated BCI for walking rehabilitation, Neural Plast, vol.2012, p.375148

J. Chester, Whiplash, Postural Control, and the Inner Ear, Spine, vol.16, issue.7, pp.716-720, 1991.
DOI : 10.1097/00007632-199107000-00004

H. Chiel, L. Ting, O. Ekeberg, and M. Hartmann, The Brain in Its Body: Motor Control and Sensing in a Biomechanical Context, Journal of Neuroscience, vol.29, issue.41, pp.12807-12814, 2009.
DOI : 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3338-09.2009

R. Chong, N. Chastan, M. Welter, and M. Do, Age-related changes in the center of mass velocity control during walking, Neuroscience Letters, vol.458, issue.1, pp.23-27, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.04.022
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00583625

F. Clarac, Some historical reflections on the neural control of locomotion, Brain Research Reviews, vol.57, issue.1, pp.13-21, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.015

J. Collins, D. Luca, and C. , The effects of visual input on open-loop and closed-loop postural control mechanisms, Experimental Brain Research, vol.103, issue.1, pp.151-63, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00241972

B. Conway, H. Hultborn, and O. Kiehn, Proprioceptive input resets central locomotor rhythm in the spinal cat, Experimental Brain Research, vol.68, issue.3, pp.643-656, 1987.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00249807

G. Courtine and M. Schieppati, Tuning of a Basic Coordination Pattern Constructs Straight-Ahead and Curved Walking in Humans, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.91, issue.4, pp.1524-1535, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00817.2003

G. Courtine, C. Papaxanthis, and M. Schieppati, Coordinated modulation of locomotor muscle synergies constructs straight-ahead and curvilinear walking in humans, Experimental Brain Research, vol.17, issue.1, pp.320-335, 2006.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-005-0215-7

P. Crenna and C. Frigo, Excitability of the soleus H-reflex arc during walking and stepping in man, Experimental Brain Research, vol.66, issue.1, pp.49-60, 1987.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00236201

P. Crenna and C. Frigo, A motor programme for the initiation of forward-oriented movements in humans., The Journal of Physiology, vol.437, issue.1, pp.635-653, 1991.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1991.sp018616

P. Crenna, D. Mc, and Y. Brénière, Motor programmes for the termination of gait in humans: organisation and velocity-dependent adaptation, The Journal of Physiology, vol.537, issue.3, pp.1059-1072, 2001.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2001.012889

R. Cromwell and R. Newton, Relationship between Balance and Gait Stability in Healthy Older Adults, Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, vol.12, issue.1, pp.90-100, 2004.
DOI : 10.1123/japa.12.1.90

N. Cronin, M. Ishikawa, M. Grey, A. Klint, R. Komi et al., Mechanical and neural stretch responses of the human soleus muscle at different walking speeds, The Journal of Physiology, vol.163, issue.13, pp.3375-3382, 2009.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2008.162610

L. Decker, F. Cignetti, and N. Stergiou, Wearing a safety harness during treadmill walking influences lower extremity kinematics mainly through changes in ankle regularity and local stability, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, vol.9, issue.1, pp.9-18, 2012.
DOI : 10.1186/1743-0003-9-8

D. Leva and P. , Adjustments to Zatsiorsky-Seluyanov's segment inertia parameters, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.29, issue.9, pp.1223-1230, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(95)00178-6

D. Nunzio, A. Grasso, M. Nardone, A. Godi, M. Schieppati et al., Alternate rhythmic vibratory stimulation of trunk muscles affects walking cadence and velocity in Parkinson???s disease, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.121, issue.2, pp.240-247, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clinph.2009.10.018

D. Otter, A. Geurts, A. Mulder, T. Duysens, and J. , Speed related changes in muscle activity from normal to very slow walking speeds, Gait & Posture, vol.19, issue.3, pp.270-278, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(03)00071-7

F. Diedrich, W. Warren, and . Jr, Why change gaits? Dynamics of the walk-run transition., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, vol.21, issue.1, pp.450-469, 1995.
DOI : 10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.183

V. Dietz, Spinal cord pattern generators for locomotion, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.114, issue.8, pp.1379-1389, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00120-2

V. Dietz, J. Quintern, and W. Berger, Corrective reactions to stumbling in man: Functional significance of spinal and transcortical reflexes, Neuroscience Letters, vol.44, issue.2, pp.131-135, 1984.
DOI : 10.1016/0304-3940(84)90070-3

V. Dietz and J. Duysens, Significance of load receptor input during locomotion: a review, Gait & Posture, vol.11, issue.2, pp.102-110, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(99)00052-1

T. Dillingham, J. Lehmann, and R. Price, Effect of lower limb on body propulsion, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, vol.73, pp.647-651, 1992.

M. Dimitrijevic, Y. Gerasimenko, and M. Pinter, Evidence for a Spinal Central Pattern Generator in Humansa, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.7, issue.1 NEURONAL MECH, pp.360-376, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-2236(96)10068-0

M. Do, Y. Breniere, and P. Brenguier, A biomechanical study of balance recovery during the fall forward, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.15, issue.12, pp.933-939, 1982.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(82)90011-2

M. Do, B. Bussel, and Y. Breniere, Influence of plantar cutaneous afferents on early compensatory reactions to forward fall, Experimental Brain Research, vol.50, issue.2, pp.319-324, 1990.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00608241

M. Do and R. Chong, Balance recovery from a forward fall: Developmental aspects of sensorimotor organization and the role of supraspinal control, Neuroscience Letters, vol.442, issue.3, pp.300-304, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.07.008
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00583639

J. Donelan and R. Kram, The effect of reduced gravity on the kinematics of human walking: a test of the dynamic similarity hypothesis for locomotion, J Exp Biol, vol.200, pp.3193-3201, 1997.

H. Dubo, M. Peat, D. Winter, A. Quanbury, D. Hobson et al., Electromyographic temporal analysis of gait: normal human locomotion, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, vol.57, pp.415-420, 1976.

S. Dubowsky, J. Rasmussen, S. Sisto, and N. Langrana, Validation of a musculoskeletal model of wheelchair propulsion and its application to minimizing shoulder joint forces, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.41, issue.14, pp.2981-2988, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.07.032

J. Duysens and K. Pearson, Inhibition of flexor burst generation by loading ankle extensor muscles in walking cats, Brain Research, vol.187, issue.2, pp.321-332, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90206-1

J. Duysens, A. Tax, S. Nawijn, W. Berger, T. Prokop et al., Gating of sensation and evoked potentials following foot stimulation during human gait, Experimental Brain Research, vol.105, issue.3, pp.423-431, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00233042

J. Duysens and H. Van-de-crommert, Neural control of locomotion; Part 1: The central pattern generator from cats to humans, Gait & Posture, vol.7, issue.2, pp.131-141, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(97)00042-8

J. Duysens, F. Clarac, and H. Cruse, Load-regulating mechanisms in gait and posture: comparative aspects, Physiol Rev. Review, vol.80, pp.83-133, 2000.

D. Eberharh, T. Inmanv, and B. Bressler, The Principal Elements in Human Locomotion, Human Limbs and Their Substitute, 1954.

E. Eidelberg, J. Walden, and L. Nguyen, LOCOMOTOR CONTROL IN MACAQUE MONKEYS, Brain, vol.104, issue.4, pp.647-663, 1981.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/104.4.647-a

M. Faist, C. Hoefer, M. Hodapp, V. Dietz, W. Berger et al., In humans Ib facilitation depends on locomotion while suppression of Ib inhibition requires loading, Brain Research, vol.1076, issue.1, pp.87-92, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.12.069

B. Fedirchuk, J. Nielsen, N. Petersen, and H. Hultborn, Pharmacologically evoked fictive motor patterns in the acutely spinalized marmoset monkey ( Callithrix jacchus ), Experimental Brain Research, vol.122, issue.3, pp.351-361, 1998.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210050523

T. Finni, P. Komi, and J. Lukkariniemi, Achilles tendon loading during walking: application of a novel optic fiber technique, European Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.77, issue.3, pp.289-291, 1998.
DOI : 10.1007/s004210050335

H. Forssberg, S. Grillner, J. Halbertsma, and S. Rossignol, The locomotion of the low spinal cat. II. Interlimb coordination, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, vol.14, issue.Suppl. 235, pp.283-295, 1980.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1980.tb06534.x

C. Francis, A. Lenz, R. Lenhart, and D. Thelen, The modulation of forward propulsion, vertical support, and center of pressure by the plantarflexors during human walking. Gait Posture. doi:pii, pp.966-6362, 2013.

J. Franz and R. Kram, The effects of grade and speed on leg muscle activations during walking, Gait & Posture, vol.35, issue.1, pp.143-147, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2011.08.025

B. Fregly and F. Zajac, A state-space analysis of mechanical energy generation, absorption, and transfer during pedaling, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.29, issue.1, pp.81-90, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(95)00011-9

H. Fukuyama, S. Matsuzaki, Y. Ouchi, H. Yamauchi, Y. Nagahama et al., Neural control of micturition in man examined with single photon emission computed tomography using 99mTc-HMPAO, NeuroReport, vol.7, issue.18, pp.3009-3012, 1997.
DOI : 10.1097/00001756-199611250-00042

S. Gard and D. Childress, The effect of pelvic list on the vertical displacement of the trunk during normal walking, Gait & Posture, vol.5, issue.3, pp.233-238, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(96)01089-2

S. Gard and D. Childress, The influence of stance-phase knee flexion on the vertical displacement of the trunk during normal walking, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol.80, issue.1, pp.26-32, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90303-9

A. Georgopoulos, A. Schwartz, and R. Kettner, Neuronal population coding of movement direction, Science, vol.233, issue.4771, pp.1416-1419, 1986.
DOI : 10.1126/science.3749885

V. Giddings, G. Beaupre, R. Whalen, and D. Carter, Calcaneal loading during walking and running, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, vol.32, issue.3, pp.627-634, 2000.
DOI : 10.1097/00005768-200003000-00012

P. Gollnick, B. Sjödin, J. Karlsson, E. Jansson, and B. Saltin, Human soleus muscle: A comparison of fiber composition and enzyme activities with other leg muscles, Pfl???gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, vol.8, issue.3, pp.247-255, 1974.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00587415

K. Gordon, D. Ferris, and A. Kuo, Reducing vertical center of mass movement during human walking doesn " t necessarily reduce metabolic cost, Proc. 27th ann. mtg, 2003.

J. Gottschall and R. Kram, Energy cost and muscular activity required for propulsion during walking, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.94, issue.5, pp.1766-1772, 2003.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00670.2002

T. Graham-brown, The Intrinsic Factors in the Act of Progression in the Mammal, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.84, issue.572, pp.308-319, 1911.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1911.0077

M. Grey, N. Mazzaro, J. Nielsen, and T. Sinkjaer, Ankle extensor proprioceptors contribute to the enhancement of the soleus EMG during the stance phase of human walking, Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, vol.82, issue.8-9, pp.610-616, 2004.
DOI : 10.1139/y04-077

M. Grey, J. Nielsen, N. Mazzaro, and T. Sinkjaer, Positive force feedback in human walking, The Journal of Physiology, vol.743, issue.Suppl. 1, pp.99-105, 2007.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.130088

S. Grillner, Locomotion in Vertebrates -Central Mechanisms and Reflex Interaction, Physiological Reviews, vol.55, pp.247-304, 1975.

S. Grillner and S. Rossignol, On the initiation of the swing phase of locomotion in chronic spinal cats, Brain Research, vol.146, issue.2, pp.269-277, 1978.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(78)90973-3

K. Gruben and W. Boehm, Force direction pattern stabilizes sagittal plane mechanics of human walking, Human Movement Science, vol.31, issue.3, pp.649-659, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.humov.2011.07.006

K. Gruben and W. Boehm, Mechanical interaction of center of pressure and force direction in the upright human, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.45, issue.9, pp.1661-1665, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.03.018

J. Haefeli, S. Vögeli, J. Michel, and V. Dietz, Preparation and performance of obstacle steps: interaction between brain and spinal neuronal activity, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.37, issue.Pt 3, pp.338-348, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07494.x

S. Hall, Basic Biomechanics, 2003.

S. Harkema, Y. Gerasimenko, J. Hodes, J. Burdick, C. Angeli et al., Effect of epidural stimulation of the lumbosacral spinal cord on voluntary movement, standing, and assisted stepping after motor complete paraplegia: a case study, The Lancet, vol.377, issue.9781, pp.1938-1947, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60547-3

H. Herr and M. Popovic, Angular momentum in human walking, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.211, issue.4, pp.467-481, 2008.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.008573

G. Hiebert, P. Whelan, A. Prochazka, and K. Pearson, Contribution of hind limb flexor muscle afferents to the timing of phase transitions in the cat step cycle, J Neurophysiol, vol.75, pp.1126-1137, 1996.

A. Hill, The Heat of Shortening and the Dynamic Constants of Muscle, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.126, issue.843, pp.136-195, 1938.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1938.0050

A. Hof, H. Elzinga, W. Grimmius, and J. Halbertsma, Speed dependence of averaged EMG profiles in walking, Gait & Posture, vol.16, issue.1, pp.78-86, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(01)00206-5

A. Hof, J. Nauta, E. Vanderknaap, M. Schallig, and D. Struwe, Calf muscle work and segment energy changes in human treadmill walking, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.2, issue.4, pp.203-216, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/1050-6411(92)90024-D

K. Holt, M. Lafiandra, M. Kubo, R. Wagenaar, and J. Obusek, Increased musculoskeletal stiffness during load carriage at increasing walking speeds maintains constant vertical excursion of the body center of mass, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.36, issue.4, pp.465-471, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00457-8

F. Horak, Postural compensation for vestibular loss and implications for rehabilitation, Restor Neurol Neurosci. Review, vol.28, pp.57-68, 2010.

J. Houk and E. Henneman, Responses of Golgi tendon organs to active contractions of the soleus muscle of the cat, J Neurophysiol, vol.30, pp.466-481, 1967.

S. Houtz and F. Walsh, Electromyographic Analysis of the Function of the Muscles Acting on the Ankle during Weight-Bearing with Special Reference to the Triceps Surae, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.41, issue.8, pp.1469-1481, 1959.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-195941080-00008

A. Hreljac, N. Stergiou, and S. Scholten, Joint kinetics of the ankle and knee when running over obstacles, J Sports Med Phys Fitness, vol.45, pp.476-482, 2005.

C. Huang, R. Cherng, Z. Yang, Y. Chen, and I. Hwang, Modulation of soleus H reflex due to stance pattern and haptic stabilization of posture, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.19, issue.3, pp.492-499, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jelekin.2007.07.014

T. Inmanv, Human Locomotion, Canadian Med. Assn. J, vol.94, pp.1047-1054, 1966.

Y. Ivanenko, R. Poppele, and F. Lacquaniti, Five basic muscle activation patterns account for muscle activity during human locomotion, The Journal of Physiology, vol.87, issue.1, pp.267-282, 2004.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2003.057174

Y. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, G. Cappellini, D. B. Cheron, G. Lacquaniti et al., Development of pendulum mechanism and kinematic coordination from the first unsupported steps in toddlers, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.207, issue.21, pp.3797-3810, 2004.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.01214

Y. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, G. Cappellini, and F. Lacquaniti, Kinematics in Newly Walking Toddlers Does Not Depend Upon Postural Stability, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.94, issue.1, pp.754-763, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00088.2005

Y. Ivanenko, R. Poppele, and F. Lacquaniti, Motor Control Programs and Walking, The Neuroscientist, vol.10, issue.4, pp.339-348, 2006.
DOI : 10.1177/1073858406287987
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.127.1892

Y. Ivanenko, N. Dominici, E. Daprati, D. Nico, and G. Cappellini, Locomotor body scheme, Human Movement Science, vol.30, issue.2, pp.341-51, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.humov.2010.04.001

Y. Jian, D. Winter, M. Ischac, and L. Gilchrist, Trajectory of the body COG and COP during initiation and termination of gait, Gait & Posture, vol.1, issue.1, pp.9-22, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0966-6362(93)90038-3

K. Jahn, A. Deutschländer, T. Stephan, M. Strupp, M. Wiesmann et al., Brain activation patterns during imagined stance and locomotion in functional magnetic resonance imaging, NeuroImage, vol.22, issue.4, pp.1722-1731, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.017

K. Jahn and A. Zwergal, Functional imaging of locomotion and navigation, Der Nervenarzt, vol.27, issue.12, pp.1450-1455, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s00115-010-3103-8

L. Jami, Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: functional properties and central actions, Physiol Rev, vol.72, pp.623-666, 1992.

E. Jankowska, Interneuronal relay in spinal pathways from proprioceptors, Progress in Neurobiology, vol.38, issue.4, pp.335-378, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0301-0082(92)90024-9

M. Jarrett, P. Moore, and A. Swanson, Assessment of gait using components of the ground reaction force vector, Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing, vol.4, issue.5, pp.685-688, 1980.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02443146

I. Jonkers, C. Stewart, and A. Spaepen, The complementary role of the plantarflexors, hamstrings and gluteus maximus in the control of stance limb stability during gait, Gait & Posture, vol.17, issue.3, pp.264-272, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(02)00102-9

T. Kepple, K. Siegel, and S. Stanhope, Relative contributions of the lower extremity joint moments to forward progression and support during gait, Gait & Posture, vol.6, issue.1, pp.1-8, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(96)01094-6

D. Kerrigan, P. Riley, J. Lelas, D. Croce, and U. , Quantification of pelvic rotation as a determinant of gait, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol.82, issue.2, pp.217-220, 2001.
DOI : 10.1053/apmr.2001.18063

H. Kinney, B. Brody, A. Kloman, and F. Gilles, Sequence of Central Nervous System Myelination in Human Infancy. II. Patterns of Myelination in Autopsied Infants, Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, vol.47, issue.3, pp.217-234, 1988.
DOI : 10.1097/00005072-198805000-00003

A. Kuo, The six determinants of gait and the inverted pendulum analogy: A dynamic walking perspective, Human Movement Science, vol.26, issue.4, pp.617-656, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.humov.2007.04.003

F. Lacquaniti, Y. Ivanenko, and M. Zago, Patterned control of human locomotion, The Journal of Physiology, vol.507, issue.10, pp.2189-2199, 2012.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.215137

F. Lacquaniti, Y. Ivanenko, and M. Zago, Development of human locomotion, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol.22, issue.5, pp.822-828, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.conb.2012.03.012

F. Lacquaniti, Y. Ivanenko, A. Avella, K. Zelik, and M. Zago, Evolutionary and Developmental Modules, Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, vol.7, p.61, 2013.
DOI : 10.3389/fncom.2013.00061
URL : http://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2013.00061

L. Ray, D. Juvin, L. Ryczko, D. Dubuc, and R. , Supraspinal control of locomotion, Prog Brain Res, vol.188, pp.51-70, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-444-53825-3.00009-7

R. Lepers and Y. Brenière, The role of anticipatory postural adjustments and gravity in gait initiation, Experimental Brain Research, vol.107, issue.1, pp.118-124, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00228023

S. Lee and J. Hidler, Biomechanics of overground vs. treadmill walking in healthy individuals, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.104, issue.3, pp.747-755, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.01380.2006

F. Leurs, Y. Ivanenko, A. Bengoetxea, A. Cebolla, B. Dan et al., Optimal walking speed following changes in limb geometry, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.214, issue.13, pp.2276-2282, 2011.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.054452

M. Lewek, The influence of body weight support on ankle mechanics during treadmill walking, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.44, issue.1, pp.128-133, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.08.037

L. Li, D. Landin, J. Grodesky, and J. Myers, The function of gastrocnemius as a knee flexor at selected knee and ankle angles, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.12, issue.5, pp.385-390, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1050-6411(02)00049-4

M. Liu, F. Anderson, M. Pandy, and S. Delp, Muscles that support the body also modulate forward progression during walking, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.39, issue.14, pp.2623-2630, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.08.017

M. Liu, F. Anderson, M. Schwartz, and S. Delp, Muscle contributions to support and progression over a range of walking speeds, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.41, issue.15, pp.3243-3252, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.07.031

D. Lloyd and T. Besier, An EMG-driven musculoskeletal model to estimate muscle 123, 2003.

M. Lund, M. De-zee, M. Andersen, and J. Rasmussen, On validation of multibody musculoskeletal models, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine, vol.226, issue.2, pp.82-94, 2012.
DOI : 10.1177/0954411911431516

H. Macdougall and S. Moore, Marching to the beat of the same drummer: the spontaneous tempo of human locomotion, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.99, issue.3, pp.1164-1173, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00138.2005

V. Macefield, Physiological characteristics of low-threshold mechanoreceptors in joints, muscle and skin in human subjects, Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, vol.297, issue.1-2, pp.135-144, 2005.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210000471

A. Mann, L. Hagy, and R. Simon, Push-Off Phase of Gait, Abbott Roc, vol.5, p.85, 1974.

M. Manuel and D. Zytnicki, ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA MOTONEURONS: FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY IN THE MOTOR SYSTEM'S FINAL PATHWAY, Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, vol.10, issue.03, pp.243-276, 2011.
DOI : 10.1142/S0219635211002786

J. Massion, B. Amblard, C. Assaiante, L. Mouchnino, and S. Vernazza, Body orientation and control of coordinated movements in microgravity, Brain Research Reviews, vol.28, issue.1-2, pp.83-91, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00029-0

B. Matthews, Nerve endings in mammalian muscle, The Journal of Physiology, vol.78, issue.1, pp.1-53, 1933.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1933.sp002984

P. Matthews, Foreword. In: Neural Control of Movement, 1995.

N. Mazzaro, M. Grey, T. Sinkjaer, J. Andersen, and D. Pareyson, Lack of On-Going Adaptations in the Soleus Muscle Activity During Walking in Patients Affected by Large-Fiber Neuropathy, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.93, issue.6, pp.3075-3085, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.01071.2004

N. Mazzaro, M. Grey, O. Nascimento, and T. Sinkjaer, Afferent-mediated modulation of the soleus muscle activity during the stance phase of human walking, Experimental Brain Research, vol.58, issue.2, pp.713-723, 2006.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-006-0451-5

T. Mcgeer, Passive Dynamic Walking, The International Journal of Robotics Research, vol.2, issue.4, pp.62-82, 1990.
DOI : 10.1177/027836499000900206

C. Mcgowan, R. Neptune, and R. Kram, Independent effects of weight and mass on plantar flexor activity during walking: implications for their contributions to body support and forward propulsion, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.105, issue.2, pp.486-494, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.90448.2008

M. Meinders, A. Gitter, and J. Czerniecki, THE ROLE OF ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXOR MUSCLE WORK DURING WALKING, Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, vol.30, issue.1, pp.39-46, 1998.
DOI : 10.1080/003655098444309

W. Mcilroy and B. Maki, The control of lateral stability during rapid stepping reactions evoked by antero-posterior perturbation: does anticipatory control play a role?, Gait & Posture, vol.9, issue.3, pp.190-198, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(99)00013-2

R. Merletti and J. Hermens, Introduction to the special issue on the SENIAM European Concerted Action, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.10, issue.5, pp.283-286, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S1050-6411(00)00019-5

V. Michel and M. Do, Are stance ankle plantar flexor muscles necessary to generate propulsive force during human gait initiation?, Neuroscience Letters, vol.325, issue.2, pp.139-143, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00255-0

S. Mochon and T. Mcmahon, Ballistic walking, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.13, issue.1, pp.49-57, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(80)90007-X

P. Morasso and M. Schieppati, Can muscle stiffness alone stabilize upright standing?, J Neurophysiol, vol.82, pp.1622-1626, 1999.

M. Mueller, S. Minor, J. Schaaf, M. Strube, and S. Sahrmann, Relationship of Plantar-Flexor Peak Torque and Dorsiflexion Range of Motion to Kinetic Variables During Walking, Physical Therapy, vol.75, issue.8, pp.684-693, 1995.
DOI : 10.1093/ptj/75.8.684

M. Murray, A. Drought, and R. Kory, Walking Patterns of Normal Men, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.46, issue.2, pp.335-360, 1964.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-196446020-00009

M. Murray, G. Guten, S. Sepic, G. Gardner, and J. Baldwin, Function of the triceps surae during gait. Compensatory mechanisms for unilateral loss., The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.60, issue.4, pp.473-476, 1978.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-197860040-00007

P. Musienko, R. Van-den-brand, O. Märzendorfer, R. Roy, Y. Gerasimenko et al., Controlling Specific Locomotor Behaviors through Multidimensional Monoaminergic Modulation of Spinal Circuitries, Journal of Neuroscience, vol.31, issue.25, pp.9264-9278, 2011.
DOI : 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5796-10.2011

S. Nadeau, D. Gravel, A. Arsenault, and D. Bourbonnais, Plantarflexor weakness as a limiting factor of gait speed in stroke subjects and the compensating role of hip flexors, Clinical Biomechanics, vol.14, issue.2, pp.125-135, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0268-0033(98)00062-X

W. Nanhoe-mahabier, A. Snijders, A. Delval, V. Weerdesteyn, J. Duysens et al., Walking patterns in Parkinson's disease with and without freezing of gait, Neuroscience, vol.182, pp.217-224, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.02.061

A. Nardone and M. Schieppati, Postural adjustments associated with voluntary contraction of leg muscles in standing man, Experimental Brain Research, vol.69, issue.3, pp.469-480, 1988.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00247301

A. Nardone, T. Corrà, and M. Schieppati, Different activations of the soleus and gastrocnemii muscles in response to various types of stance perturbation in man, Experimental Brain Research, vol.80, issue.2, pp.323-332, 1990.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00228159

A. Nardone, S. Corna, A. Turcato, and M. Schieppati, Afferent control of walking: Are there distinct deficits associated to loss of fibres of different diameter?, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.125, issue.2, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clinph.2013.07.007

J. Nilsson, . Thorstensson, and . Halbertsma, Changes in leg movements and muscle activity with speed of locomotion and mode of progression in humans, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, vol.116, issue.4, pp.457-475, 1985.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1985.tb07612.x

R. Neptune, S. Kautz, and F. Zajac, Contributions of the individual ankle plantar flexors to support, forward progression and swing initiation during walking, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.34, issue.11, pp.1387-1398, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0021-9290(01)00105-1

R. Neptune and C. Mcgowan, Muscle contributions to whole-body sagittal plane angular momentum during walking, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.44, issue.1, pp.6-12, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.08.015
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3003775

K. Ness, J. Gurney, and G. Ice, Screening, education, and associated behavioral responses to reduce risk for falls among people over age 65 years attending a community health fair, Phys Ther, vol.83, pp.631-637, 2003.

J. Nielsen and T. Sinkjaer, Afferent feedback in the control of human gait, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, vol.12, issue.3, pp.213-217, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1050-6411(02)00023-8

C. Nott, F. Zajac, R. Neptune, and S. Kautz, All joint moments significantly contribute to trunk angular acceleration, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.43, issue.13, pp.2648-2652, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.04.044
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937077

T. Öberg, A. Karsznia, and K. Oberg, Basic gait parameters: reference data for normal subjects, 10-79 years of age, J Rehabil Res Dev, vol.30, pp.210-223, 1993.

S. Olney, H. Macphail, D. Hedden, and W. Boyce, Work and Power in Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy Gait, Physical Therapy, vol.70, issue.7, pp.431-438, 1990.
DOI : 10.1093/ptj/70.7.431

S. Olney, M. Griffin, and I. Mcbride, Temporal, Kinematic, and Kinetic Variables Related to Gait Speed in Subjects With Hemiplegia: A Regression Approach, Physical Therapy, vol.74, issue.9, pp.872-885, 1994.
DOI : 10.1093/ptj/74.9.872

J. Ortega and C. Farley, Minimizing center of mass vertical movement increases metabolic cost in walking, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.99, issue.6, pp.2099-2107, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00103.2005

J. Otis and A. Burstein, Evaluation of the VA-Rancho Gait Analyzer, Mark I, Bull Prosthet Res, vol.10, pp.21-25, 1981.

C. Papaxanthis, T. Pozzo, and M. Schieppati, Trajectories of arm pointing movements on the sagittal plane vary with both direction and speed, Experimental Brain Research, vol.99, issue.4, pp.498-503, 2003.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210050397

Y. Pai and J. Patton, Center of mass velocity-position predictions for balance control, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.30, issue.4, pp.199-206, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0021-9290(96)00165-0

S. Park, H. Choi, K. Rye, S. Kim, and Y. Kim, Kinematics, kinetics and muscle activities of the lower extremity during the first four steps from gait initiation to the steady-state walking, Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, vol.194, issue.1, pp.204-211, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s12206-008-0812-z

A. Pedotti, A study of motor coordination and neuromuscular activities in human locomotion, Biological Cybernetics, vol.54, issue.1, pp.53-62, 1977.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00363992

A. Pedrocchi, G. Baroni, L. Mouchnino, G. Ferrigno, A. Pedotti et al., Absence of center of mass control for leg abduction in long-term weightlessness in humans, Neuroscience Letters, vol.319, issue.3, pp.172-176, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00002-2

J. Perry, Kinesiology of Lower Extremity Bracing, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, vol.102, pp.18-23, 1974.
DOI : 10.1097/00003086-197407000-00004

J. Perry, Gait Analysis, Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, vol.12, issue.6, 1992.
DOI : 10.1097/01241398-199211000-00023

T. Petersen, M. Willerslev-olsen, B. Conway, and J. Nielsen, The motor cortex drives the muscles during walking in human subjects, The Journal of Physiology, vol.106, issue.10, pp.2443-2452, 2012.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.227397

M. Popovic, A. Hofmann, and H. Herr, Angular momentum regulation during human walking: biomechanics and control, IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2004. Proceedings. ICRA '04. 2004, pp.2405-2411, 2004.
DOI : 10.1109/ROBOT.2004.1307421

W. Platzer, Color Atlas of Human Anatomy locomotor system, 2008.

A. Prochazka, Proprioceptive Feedback and Movement Regulation, 1996.
DOI : 10.1002/cphy.cp120103

U. Proske and D. Morgan, Stiffness of cat soleus muscle and tendon during activation of part of muscle, J Neurophysiol, vol.52, pp.459-468, 1984.

U. Proske and S. Gandevia, The Proprioceptive Senses: Their Roles in Signaling Body Shape, Body Position and Movement, and Muscle Force, Physiological Reviews, vol.92, issue.4, pp.1651-1697, 2012.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00048.2011

. Richardson, Myelination in the human central nervous sys-tem, 1982.

M. Roerdink and P. Beek, Understanding Inconsistent Step-Length Asymmetries Across Hemiplegic Stroke Patients, Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, vol.23, issue.3, pp.253-258, 2011.
DOI : 10.2522/ptj.20080237
URL : http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/36943/1/278855.pdf

J. Rose and J. Gamble, Human Walking, 1994.

D. Raichlen, A. Gordon, W. Harcourt-smith, A. Foster, and W. Haas, Laetoli Footprints Preserve Earliest Direct Evidence of Human-Like Bipedal Biomechanics, PLoS ONE, vol.5, issue.3, p.9769, 2010.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0009769.s008

S. Rossignol, C. Chau, E. Brustein, M. Belanger, H. Barbeau et al., Locomotor capacities after complete and partial lesions of the spinal cord, Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars ), vol.56, pp.449-463, 1996.

S. Rossignol, R. Dubuc, and J. Gossard, Dynamic Sensorimotor Interactions in Locomotion, Physiological Reviews, vol.86, issue.1, pp.89-115, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00028.2005

J. Rothwell, Control of Human Voluntary Movement, Physiotherapy, vol.80, issue.12, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/S0031-9406(10)60176-9

P. Rougier, E. Zanders, and E. Borlet, Influence of visual cues on upright postural control: differentiated effects of eyelids closure, Rev Neurol, vol.159, pp.180-188, 2003.

H. Ruget, J. Blouin, N. Teasdale, and L. Mouchnino, Can prepared anticipatory postural adjustments be updated by proprioception? Neuroscience, pp.640-648, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.06.021

H. Sadeghi, S. Sadeghi, F. Prince, P. Allard, H. Labelle et al., Functional roles of ankle and hip sagittal muscle moments in able-bodied gait, Clinical Biomechanics, vol.16, issue.8, pp.688-695, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0268-0033(01)00058-4

J. Saunders, V. Inman, and H. Eberhart, THE MAJOR DETERMINANTS IN NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICAL GAIT, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.35, issue.3, pp.543-558, 1953.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-195335030-00003

D. Sayenko, A. Vette, H. Obata, M. Alekhina, M. Akai et al., Differential effects of plantar cutaneous afferent excitation on soleus stretch and H-reflex, Muscle & Nerve, vol.58, issue.6, pp.761-769, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/mus.21254

M. Schieppati, M. Hugon, M. Grasso, A. Nardone, and M. Galante, The limits of equilibrium in young and elderly normal subjects and in parkinsonians, Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Evoked Potentials Section, vol.93, issue.4, pp.286-298, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/0168-5597(94)90031-0

C. Sherrington, Flexion-reflex of the limb, crossed extension-reflex, and reflex stepping and standing, The Journal of Physiology, vol.40, issue.1-2, pp.28-121, 1910.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1910.sp001362

C. Sherrington, Ferrier Lecture: Some Functional Problems Attaching to Convergence, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.105, issue.737, pp.332-362, 1929.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1929.0047

D. Schmitt, Insights into the evolution of human bipedalism from experimental studies of humans and other primates, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.206, issue.9, pp.1437-1348, 2003.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.00279

B. Shropshire, P. Jacobs, K. Willer, G. Zych, and B. Green, Involuntary stepping after chronic spinal cord injury. Evidence for a central rhythm generator for locomotion in man, Brain, vol.117, pp.1143-1159, 1994.

T. Sinkjaer, J. Andersen, and B. Larsen, Soleus stretch reflex modulation during gait in humans, J Neurophysiol, vol.76, pp.1112-1120, 1996.

T. Sinkjaer, J. Andersen, M. Ladouceur, L. Christensen, and J. Nielsen, Major role for sensory feedback in soleus EMG activity in the stance phase of walking in man, The Journal of Physiology, vol.87, issue.4, pp.817-827, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00817.x

S. Simon, R. Mann, J. Hagy, and L. Larsen, Role of the posterior calf muscles in normal gait., The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.60, issue.4, pp.465-472, 1978.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-197860040-00006

J. Skoyles, Human balance, the evolution of bipedalism and dysequilibrium syndrome, Medical Hypotheses, vol.66, issue.6, pp.1060-1068, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.01.042

S. Sozzi, J. Honeine, M. Do, and M. Schieppati, Leg muscle activity during tandem stance and the control of body balance in the frontal plane, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.124, issue.6, pp.1175-1186, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clinph.2012.12.001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00932170

M. Stephens and J. Yang, Loading during the stance phase of walking in humans increases the extensor EMG amplitude but does not change the duration of the step cycle, Experimental Brain Research, vol.124, issue.3, pp.363-370, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210050633

G. Stoquart, C. Detrembleur, and T. Lejeune, Effect of speed on kinematic, kinetic, electromyographic and energetic reference values during treadmill walking, Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.38, issue.2, pp.105-116, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neucli.2008.02.002

D. Sutherland, An Electromyographic Study of the Plantar Flexors of the Ankle in Normal Walking on the Level, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.48, issue.1, pp.66-71, 1966.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-196648010-00005

D. Sutherland, L. Cooper, and D. Daniel, The role of the ankle plantar flexors in normal walking., The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, vol.62, issue.3, pp.354-363, 1980.
DOI : 10.2106/00004623-198062030-00005

D. Sutherland, K. Kaufman, and J. Moitoza, Kinematics of normal human walking, 1994.

F. Sylos-labini, Y. Ivanenko, G. Cappellini, A. Portone, M. Maclellan et al., Changes of Gait Kinematics in Different Simulators of Reduced Gravity, Journal of Motor Behavior, vol.100, issue.7, 2013.
DOI : 10.1038/nature04113

A. Thorstensson and H. Roberthson, Adaptations to changing speed in human locomotion: speed of transition between walking and running, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, vol.123, issue.2, pp.211-214, 1987.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1987.tb08228.x

C. Tokuno, M. Carpenter, A. Thorstensson, S. Garland, and A. Cresswell, Control of the triceps surae during the postural sway of quiet standing, Acta Physiologica, vol.80, issue.3, pp.229-236, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01727.x

G. Van-ingen-schenau, M. Bobbert, and R. Rozendal, The unique action of biarticular muscles in complex movements, J Anat, vol.155, pp.1-5, 1987.

J. Van-doornik, A. Coste, C. Ushiba, J. Sinkjaer, and T. , Positive afferent feedback to the human soleus muscle during quiet standing, Muscle & Nerve, vol.16, issue.5, pp.726-732, 2011.
DOI : 10.1002/mus.21952
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/lirmm-00529289

F. Verdini, M. Marcucci, M. Benedetti, and T. Leo, Identification and characterisation of heel strike transient, Gait & Posture, vol.24, issue.1, pp.77-84, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.07.008

P. Whelan, G. Hiebert, and K. Pearson, Plasticity of the extensor group I pathway controlling the stance to swing transition in the cat, J Neurophysiol, vol.74, pp.2782-2787, 1995.

P. Whelan, G. Hiebert, and K. Pearson, Stimulation of the group I extensor afferents prolongs the stance phase in walking cats, Experimental Brain Research, vol.103, issue.1, pp.20-30, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00241961

D. Winter, Overall principle of lower limb support during stance phase of gait, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.13, issue.11, pp.923-927, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9290(80)90162-1

D. Winter, Energy Generation and Absorption at the Ankle and Knee during Fast, Natural, and Slow Cadences, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, vol.&NA;, issue.175, pp.147-154, 1983.
DOI : 10.1097/00003086-198305000-00021

D. Winter, Biomechanics of Normal and Pathological Gait, Journal of Motor Behavior, vol.6, issue.4, pp.337-355, 1989.
DOI : 10.1080/00222895.1989.10735488

D. Winter, A. Patla, J. Frank, and S. Walt, Biomechanical Walking Pattern Changes in the Fit and Healthy Elderly, Physical Therapy, vol.70, issue.6, pp.340-347, 1990.
DOI : 10.1093/ptj/70.6.340

D. Winter, Human balance and posture control during standing and walking, Gait & Posture, vol.3, issue.4, p.193214, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0966-6362(96)82849-9

D. Winter, A. Patla, F. Prince, M. Ishac, and K. Gielo-perczak, Stiffness control of balance during quiet standing, Gait & Posture, vol.5, issue.2, pp.1211-1221, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(97)83378-4

W. Wright, Y. Ivanenko, and V. Gurfinkel, Foot anatomy specialization for postural sensation and control, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.107, issue.5, pp.1513-1521, 2012.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00256.2011

E. Wentink, E. Prinsen, J. Rietman, and P. Veltink, Comparison of muscle activity patterns of transfemoral amputees and control subjects during walking, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, vol.10, issue.1, p.87, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2004.09.003

J. Wrobel and B. Najafi, Diabetic Foot Biomechanics and Gait Dysfunction, Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, vol.4, issue.3, pp.833-845, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s001250050788
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2909514

P. Yakovlev and A. Lecours, The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain, 1967.

J. Yang, M. Stephens, and R. Vishram, Infant stepping: a method to study the sensory control of human walking, The Journal of Physiology, vol.176, issue.suppl. 521, pp.927-937, 1998.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.927bs.x

J. Yang, R. Stein, and K. James, Contribution of peripheral afferents to the activation of the soleus muscle during walking in humans, Experimental Brain Research, vol.87, issue.3, pp.679-687, 1991.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00227094

J. Yang and M. Gorassini, Spinal and Brain Control of Human Walking: Implications for Retraining of Walking, The Neuroscientist, vol.79, issue.2, pp.379-389, 2006.
DOI : 10.1177/1073858406292151

G. Yavuzer, F. Eser, D. Karakus, B. Karaoglan, and H. Stam, The effects of balance training on gait late after stroke: a randomized controlled trial, Clinical Rehabilitation, vol.83, issue.11, pp.960-969, 2006.
DOI : 10.1177/0269215506070315

G. Yavuzer, O. Oken, A. Elhan, and H. Stam, Repeatability of lower limb three-dimensional kinematics in patients with stroke, Gait & Posture, vol.27, issue.1, pp.31-35, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.12.016

F. Zajac and M. Gordon, Determining muscle's force and action in multi-articular movement, Exerc Sport Sci Rev, vol.17, pp.187-230, 1989.

F. Zajac, Understanding muscle coordination of the human leg with dynamical simulations, Journal of Biomechanics, vol.35, issue.8, pp.1011-1018, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00046-5

A. Zancan, M. Beretta, M. Schmid, and M. Schieppati, A new hip-knee-ankle-foot sling: Kinematic comparison with a traditional ankle-foot orthosis, The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, vol.41, issue.5, pp.707-712, 2004.
DOI : 10.1682/JRRD.2003.06.0101

C. Zanetti and M. Schieppati, Quiet stance control is affected by prior treadmill but not overground locomotion, European Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.1004, issue.3, pp.331-339, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s00421-007-0434-7