J. Albergel, Genèse et prédétermination des crues au Burkina Faso; du m² au km², étude des paramètres hydrologiques et de leur évolution, 1987.

J. Albergel, M. Diatta, and Y. Pépin, Aménagement hydraulique et bocage dans le bassin arachidier du Sénégal, La jachère en Afrique tropicale: Rôles, Aménagement, Alternatives. Actes du Séminaire international. Dakar 13?16 Avril 1999. Editions John Libbey Eurotext, pp.741-750, 2000.

S. C. Alfaro and L. Gomes, Modeling mineral aerosol production by wind erosion: Emission intensities and aerosol size distributions in source areas, Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, vol.101, issue.7, pp.75-18084, 2001.
DOI : 10.1029/2000JD900339

I. Ama-salah, Pétrographie et relations structurales des formations métavolcaniques et sédimentaires du birimien du Niger occidental, problème de l'accrétion, 1991.

A. Amani, T. Lebel, J. Rousselle, and J. D. Taupin, Typology of Rainfall Fields to Improve Rainfall Estimation in the Sahel by the Area Threshold Method, Water Resources Research, vol.19, issue.D3, pp.2473-2488, 1996.
DOI : 10.1029/96WR01100

I. Andersen, O. Dione, M. Jarosewich-holder, and J. C. Olivry, The Niger River Basin: a vision for sustainable management, Directions in Development, 2005.

M. O. Andreae, Raising dust in the greenhouse, Nature, vol.380, issue.6573, pp.389-390, 1996.
DOI : 10.1038/380389a0

R. A. Bagnold, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, p.265, 1941.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-009-5682-7

A. Bahr, F. Lamy, H. Arz, H. Kuhlmann, and G. Wefer, Late glacial to Holocene climate and sedimentation history in the NW Black Sea, Marine Geology, vol.214, issue.4, pp.309-322, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.margeo.2004.11.013

W. L. Balsam and B. C. Deaton, Sediment dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean: evaluation by visible light spectra, Reviews in Aquatic Sciences, vol.4, pp.411-447, 1991.

W. L. Balsam, B. C. Deaton, and J. E. Damuth, Evaluating optical lightness as a proxy for carbonate content in marine sediment cores, Marine Geology, vol.161, issue.2-4, pp.141-153, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0025-3227(99)00037-7

M. Banoin and J. P. Guengant, Les systèmes agraires traditionnels nigériens dans l'impasse face à la démographie in Jachères et systèmes agraires, pp.1-14, 1999.

G. Bargel, I. Grimm, J. Haas, I. Harder, M. Noli et al., Desertifikationsbekiipfungund soziale Organisation -Mijglichkeiten und Grenzen der Implementierung technischer Mal3nahmen zum Erosionsschutz im Niger Wind erosion control using crop residue II. Effects on soil flux and soil properties, Schriftenreihe des Fachbereichs Intemationale Agrarentwicklung, Nr. 133, pp.111-118, 1990.

A. Bationo, S. Wani, C. L. Bielders, P. L. Vlek, A. U. Mokwunye et al., Crop residue and fertilizer management to improve soil organic carbon content, soil quality and productivity in the Desert Margins or West Africa Global climate and tropical ecosystems, Boca Raton, pp.117-162, 2000.

C. L. Bielders, K. Michels, and J. L. Rajot, On-Farm Evaluation of Ridging and Residue Management Practices to Reduce Wind Erosion in Niger, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.64, issue.5, pp.1776-1785, 2000.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj2000.6451776x

C. L. Bielders, J. R. Rajot, and M. Amadou, Transport of soil and nutrients by wind in bush fallow land and traditionally managed cultivated fields in the Sahel, Geoderma, vol.109, issue.1-2, pp.19-39, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-7061(02)00138-6

C. Bielders, A. Vrieling, J. L. Rajot, and E. Skidmore, On-Farm Evaluation of Field-Scale Soil Losses by Wind Erosion Under Traditional Management in the Sahel, Soil Erosion, pp.494-497, 2001.
DOI : 10.13031/2013.4585

J. Bloemendal and P. B. , Evidence for a change in the periodicity of tropical climate cycles at 2.4 Myr from whole-core magnetic susceptibility measurements, Nature, vol.342, issue.6252, pp.897-900, 1989.
DOI : 10.1038/342897a0

D. G. Blumberg and R. Greeley, Field studies of aerodynamic roughness length, Journal of Arid Environments, vol.25, issue.1, pp.39-48, 1993.
DOI : 10.1006/jare.1993.1041

P. Böning, E. Bard, and J. Rose, Toward direct, micron-scale XRF elemental maps and quantitative profiles of wet marine sediments, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol.195, issue.5498, pp.10-1029, 2007.
DOI : 10.1029/2006GC001480

L. Boudouresque, D. Dubois, J. Lang, and J. Trichet, Contribution à la stratigraphie et à la Afrique de l'ouest), Bull. Soc. Géol. France, vol.4, pp.685-695, 1982.

A. Bouma, Methods for the study of sedimentary structures, p.458, 1969.

G. Bozzano, H. Kuhlmann, and B. Alonso, Storminess control over African dust input to the Moroccan Atlantic margin (NW Africa) at the time of maxima boreal summer insolation: a record of the last 220 kyr, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol.183, issue.1-2, pp.155-168, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00466-7

. Bryan, Gully-scale implications of rill network and confluence processes Gully Erosion Under Global Change, pp.73-95, 2004.

B. Buerkert, B. Allison, V. Oppen, and M. , Wind erosion in Niger. Implications and control measures in millet-based farming system, pp.101-110, 1996.

S. E. Calvert and T. F. Pedersen, Elemental proxies for palaeoclimatic and palaeoceanographic variability inmarine sediments: interpretation and application, 2007.

G. Caniaux, H. Giordani, and J. L. Redelsperger, La mousson africaine sous influence de l'Atlantique, La Recherche, vol.440, pp.56-58, 2010.

C. Cappelaere, L. Descroix, T. Lebel, N. Boulain, D. Ramier et al., The AMMA-CATCH experiment in the cultivated Sahelian area of south-west Niger ??? Investigating water cycle response to a fluctuating climate and changing environment, Journal of Hydrology, vol.375, issue.1-2, pp.34-51, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.06.021

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00411989

I. A. Carton, X. Cao, B. S. Ciese, and A. M. Da-silva, Decadal and Interannual SST Variability in the Tropical Atlantic Ocean, Journal of Physical Oceanography, vol.26, issue.7, pp.1165-1175, 1996.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026<1165:DAISVI>2.0.CO;2

A. Casenave and C. Valentin, Les états de surface de la zone sahélienne Influence sur l'infiltration. Collection didactiques, 1989.

C. Cilss, Programme d'action sous régional de lutte contre la désertification en Afrique de l'Ouest et au Tchad, p.89, 1999.

P. C. Chamard and M. F. Courel, La forêt sahélienne menacée. Sécheresse, pp.11-18, 1999.

P. Chang, J. Li, and H. Li, A decadal climate variation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from thermodynamic air-sea interactions, Nature, vol.385, issue.6616, pp.516-518, 1997.
DOI : 10.1038/385516a0

M. R. Chapman and N. J. Shackleton, Millennial-scale fluctuations in North Atlantic heat flux during the last 150,000 years, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol.159, issue.1-2, pp.57-70, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00068-5

W. S. Chepil, DYNAMICS OF WIND EROSION, Soil Science, vol.60, issue.5, pp.397-411, 1945.
DOI : 10.1097/00010694-194511000-00005

W. S. Chepil, PROPERTIES OF SOIL WHICH INFLUENCE WIND EROSION, Soil Science, vol.72, issue.5, pp.387-401, 1951.
DOI : 10.1097/00010694-195111000-00007

W. S. Chepil, Transport of Soil and Snow by Wind, Meteorol. Monogr, vol.35, pp.123-132, 1965.
DOI : 10.1029/TR035i002p00252

W. S. Chepil and N. P. Woodruff, The Physics of Wind Erosion and its Control, Adv. Agron, vol.15, pp.210-302, 1963.
DOI : 10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60400-9

R. Chester, J. , and L. R. , Atmospheric Dusts collected off the West African Coast, Nature, vol.50, issue.5280, pp.105-107, 1971.
DOI : 10.1038/229105b0

C. Chou, P. Formenti, M. Maille, P. Ausset, G. Helas et al., Size distribution, shape, and composition of mineral dust aerosols collected during the African Monsoon multidisciplinary analysis special observation period 0: dust and biomass burning experiment field campaign in Niger, J. Geophys. Res, vol.113, pp.0-1010, 1029.

J. Collinet and C. Valentin, Evaluation of factors influencing water erosion in West Africa using rainfall simulation. Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources, pp.451-461, 1985.

A. Colman, M. Davey, M. Harisson, and D. Richardson, Multiple regression and discriminant analysis predictions of rainfall in the Sahel and other tropical North African regions, Exp. Long-lead Forecast Bull, vol.5, pp.26-28, 1996.

A. Cornet, La désertification à la croisée de l'environnement : un problème qui nous concerne, Sommet Mondial du Développement Durable, quels enjeux ? Quelle contribution des scientifiques ?, pp.93-130, 2002.

G. Coudé-gaussen, Le cycle des poussières éoliennes désertiques actuelles et la sédimentation des loess péridésertiques quaternaires, 1984.

J. M. Cour, The Sahel in West Africa: countries in transition to a full market economy, Global Environmental Change, vol.11, issue.1, pp.31-47, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00043-1

I. W. Croudace, A. Rindby, and R. G. Rothwell, ITRAX: description and evaluation of a new multi-function X-ray core scanner, New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis, pp.51-63, 2006.
DOI : 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.267.01.04

S. Daba, An investigation of the physical and socioeconomic determinants of soil erosion in the Hararghe highlands, eastern Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development, pp.69-81, 2003.

D. Amato, N. Lebel, and T. , On the characteristics of the rainfall events in the Sahel with a view to the analysis of climatic variability, International Journal of Climatology, vol.245, issue.189, pp.955-974, 1998.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199807)18:9<955::AID-JOC236>3.0.CO;2-6

D. Vente, J. Poesen, J. Verstraeten, and G. , The application of semi-quantitative methods and reservoir sedimentation rates for the prediction of basin sediment yield in Spain, Journal of Hydrology, vol.305, issue.1-4, pp.63-86, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.08.030

P. B. Demenocal, Plio-Pleistocene African Climate, Science, vol.270, issue.5233, pp.53-59, 1995.
DOI : 10.1126/science.270.5233.53

M. Descloitres, O. Ribolzi, and . Le-troquer, Study of infiltration in a Sahelian gully erosion area using time-lapse resistivity mapping, CATENA, vol.53, issue.3, pp.229-253, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00038-9

J. C. Desconnets, J. D. Taupin, T. Lebel, and C. Leduc, Hydrology of the HAPEX-Sahel Central Super-Site: surface water drainage and aquifer recharge through the pool systems, Journal of Hydrology, vol.188, issue.189, pp.188-189, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03158-7

L. Descroix, G. Mahé, T. Lebel, G. Favreau, S. Galle et al., Spatio-temporal variability of hydrological regimes around the boundaries between Sahelian and Sudanian areas of West Africa: A synthesis, Journal of Hydrology, vol.375, issue.1-2, pp.90-102, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.12.012

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00412012

J. Dinarès-turell, B. A. Hoogakker, A. P. Roberts, E. J. Rohling, and L. Sagnotti, Quaternary climatic control of biogenic magnetite production and eolian dust input in cores from the Mediterranean Sea, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol.190, pp.195-209, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00605-3

O. Dione, Déficit pluviométrique et variation de l, 1995.

A. Diouf and E. F. Lambin, Monitoring land-cover changes in semi-arid regions: remote sensing data and field observations in the Ferlo, Senegal, Journal of Arid Environments, vol.48, issue.2, pp.129-148, 2001.
DOI : 10.1006/jare.2000.0744

L. R. Drees, A. Manu, and L. P. Wilding, Characteristics of aeolian dusts in Niger, West Africa, Geoderma, vol.59, issue.1-4, pp.213-233, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0016-7061(93)90070-2

D. Dubois, Etude géologique de formations oolithiques ferrugineuses du bassin des Iullemmeden (Rép. Niger), Thèse 3è cycle, 1979.

D. Dubois, M. Icole, and J. Trichet, Evolution geomorphologique de la vallee du Niger aux abords de Niamey (Republique du Niger), Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, vol.7, issue.6, pp.1305-1318, 1984.
DOI : 10.2113/gssgfbull.S7-XXVI.6.1305

D. W. Fryrear, A field dust sampler, J. Soil Water Conserv, vol.41, pp.117-120, 1986.

D. W. Fryrear, J. E. Stout, L. J. Hagen, and E. D. Vories, Wind Erosion: Field Measurement And Analysis, Transactions of the ASAE, vol.34, issue.1, pp.155-160, 1991.
DOI : 10.13031/2013.31638

B. A. Gado, Concepts traditionnels sur les sécheresses, pp.243-250, 1992.

E. Ganor, The frequency of Saharan dust episodes over Tel Aviv, Israel, Atmospheric Environment, vol.28, issue.17, pp.2867-2871, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/1352-2310(94)90087-6

F. Gasse, Climate and??hydrological changes in??tropical Africa during the??past million years, Comptes Rendus Palevol, vol.5, issue.1-2, pp.35-43, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.crpv.2005.09.012

M. Gavaud, Les grands traits de la pédogenèse au Niger méridional. Travaux et documents de l'ORSTOM, 76, 1977.

S. C. Geiger, A. Manu, and A. Bationo, Changes in a Sandy Sahelian Soil Following Crop Residue and Fertilizer Additions, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.56, issue.1, pp.172-177, 1992.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj1992.03615995005600010027x

A. Giannini, R. Saravanan, and P. Chang, Oceanic Forcing of Sahel Rainfall on Interannual to Interdecadal Time Scales, Science, vol.302, issue.5647, pp.1027-1030, 2003.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1089357

D. A. Gillette, On the production of soil wind erosion aerosols having the potential for long range transport, J. Rech. Atm, vol.8, pp.735-744, 1974.

D. A. Gillette, Environmental factors affecting dust emission by wind erosion, C Morales Saharan dust, pp.71-94, 1979.

D. A. Gillette, I. H. Blifford-jr, and C. R. Fenster, Measurements of Aerosol Size Distributions and Vertical Fluxes of Aerosols on Land Subject to Wind Erosion, Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol.11, issue.6, pp.977-987, 1972.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0450(1972)011<0977:MOASDA>2.0.CO;2

D. A. Gillette, D. W. Fryrear, T. Ley, T. Cahill, T. Gill et al., Ratio of vertical flux of PM10 to total horizontal mass flux of airborne particles in wind erosion, Air & Waste Management Association, vol.02, pp.95-133, 1995.

D. A. Gillette, G. Herbert, P. H. Stockton, and P. R. Owen, Causes of the fetch effect in wind erosion. Earth, Surf, Proc. Land, pp.641-659, 1996.

D. A. Gillette and T. R. Walker, CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRBORNE PARTICLES PRODUCED BY WIND EROSION OF SANDY SOIL, HIGH PLAINS OF WEST TEXAS, Soil Science, vol.123, issue.2, pp.97-110, 1977.
DOI : 10.1097/00010694-197702000-00004

P. Ginoux, M. Chin, I. Tegen, J. M. Prospero, B. Holben et al., Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model, Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, vol.50, issue.1, pp.20255-20273, 2001.
DOI : 10.1029/2000JD000053

L. Giosan, R. D. Flood, and R. C. Aller, Paleoceanographic significance of sediment color on western North Atlantic drifts: I. Origin of color, Marine Geology, vol.189, issue.1-2, pp.1-2, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0025-3227(02)00321-3

L. Gomes, G. Bergametti, G. Coudé-gaussen, and P. Rognon, Submicron desert dusts: A sandblasting process, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.92, issue.D9, pp.13927-13935, 1990.
DOI : 10.1029/JD095iD09p13927

L. Gomes, J. L. Rajot, S. C. Alfaro, and A. Gaudichet, Validation of a Dust Production Model from measurements performed in Spain and Niger, Catena, vol.52, pp.3-4, 2003.

D. Goossens, Z. Y. Offer, and G. London, Wind tunnel and field calibration of five aeolian sand traps, Geomorphology, vol.35, issue.3-4, pp.233-252, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-555X(00)00041-6

A. S. Goudie, Dust storms: Recent developments, Journal of Environmental Management, vol.90, issue.1, pp.89-94, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.007

A. S. Goudie and N. J. Middleton, Saharan dust storms: nature and consequences, Earth-Science Reviews, vol.56, issue.1-4, pp.179-204, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00067-8

J. Greigert, Description des formations crétacées et tertiaires du bassin des Iullemmeden (Afrique Occidentale) Publication de la Direction Mines et Géologie, et Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières, 1966.

J. Grist and S. E. Nicholson, A Study of the Dynamic Factors Influencing the Rainfall Variability in the West African Sahel, Journal of Climate, vol.14, issue.7, pp.1337-1359, 2001.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<1337:ASOTDF>2.0.CO;2

J. P. Guengant and M. Banoin, Dynamique des populations, disponibilités en terres et adaptation des régimes fonciers : le cas du Niger, p.pp, 2003.

A. Hadas and H. Frenkel, Infiltration as Affected by Long-term Use of Sodic-Saline Water for Irrigation1, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.46, issue.3, pp.524-530, 1982.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj1982.03615995004600030016x

D. J. Hall and S. L. Upton, A wind tunnel study of the particle collection efficiency of an inverted frisbee used as a dust deposition gauge, Atmospheric Environment (1967), vol.22, issue.7, pp.1383-1394, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0004-6981(88)90163-1

S. E. Harris, A. C. Mix, and T. King, Biogenous and terrigenous sedimentation at Ceara Rise, western Tropical Atlantic, supports Pliocene-Pleistocene deep-water linkage between hemispheres, Proc. ODP Sci. Results, pp.331-345, 1997.

S. Hastenrath, Climate dynamics of the tropics, Kluwer Eds, vol.488, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-011-3156-8

L. Herrmann, Identification and quantification of dust additions in peri-saharan soils The impacts of desert dust across the Mediterranean, 1996.

P. Hiernaux, L. Diarra, V. Trichon, E. Mougin, N. Soumaguel et al., Woody plant population dynamics in response to climate changes from 1984 to 2006 in Sahel (Gourma, Mali), Journal of Hydrology, vol.375, issue.1-2, pp.103-113, 1984.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.01.043

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ird-00406590

R. J. Holyer, D. K. Young, J. C. Sandidge, and K. B. Briggs, Sediment density structure derived from textural analysis of cross-sectional X-radiographs, Geo-Marine Letters, vol.52, issue.3, pp.204-211, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01204510

J. D. Howard, X-ray radiography for examination of burrowing by marine invertebrate organisms, Sedimentology, vol.11, pp.204-211, 1968.

M. Hulme, Rainfall changes in Africa: 1931???1960 to 1961???1990, International Journal of Climatology, vol.92, issue.7, pp.685-699, 1931.
DOI : 10.1002/joc.3370120703

S. Huon, B. Bellanger, P. Bonte, P. Podwojewski, C. Valentin et al., Monitoring soil organic carbon erosion with isotopic tracers, two case studies on cultivated tropical catchments with steep slopes (Laos, Venezuela) Advances in Soil Science, 2005.

M. W. Hounslow and B. A. Maher, Source of the climate signal recorded by magnetic susceptibility variations in Indian Ocean sediments, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol.117, issue.B3, pp.5047-5061, 1999.
DOI : 10.1029/1998JB900085

B. G. Hunt, Natural climatic variability and Sahelian rainfall trends, Global and Planetary Change, vol.24, issue.2, pp.107-131, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0921-8181(99)00064-8

P. D. Jackson, K. B. Briggs, and R. C. Flint, Evaluation of sediment heterogeneity using microresistivity imaging and X-ray radiography, pp.219-225, 1996.

S. Janicot, Les points sur la désertification et les changements climatiques, Connaissance de la météorologie, 1996.

H. Kadomura, Lake Chad: Recent shrinkage and research priorities, Japan infoMAB, vol.19, pp.1-6, 1997.

H. Karambiri, O. Ribolzi, and J. P. Delhoume, Importance of soil surface characteristics on water erosion in a small grazed Sahelian catchment, Hydrological Processes, vol.VI, issue.189, pp.1495-1507, 2003.
DOI : 10.1002/hyp.1195

M. Kardhous, Quantification de l'érosion éolienne dans les zones arides tunisiennes : approche expérimentale et modélisation, Thèse de doctorat en sciences, p.298, 2005.

S. Karimoune, Contribution à l'étude géomorphologique de la région de Zinder (Niger) et analyse par télédétection de l'évolution de la désertification, Thèse en sciences géographiques, p.350, 1994.

J. C. Katyal and P. L. Vlek, Desertification: concept, causes and amelioration, ZEF, Discussion Papers on Development Policy, p.65, 2000.

Y. Kido, T. Koshikawa, and R. Tada, Rapid and quantitative major element analysis method for wet fine-grained sediments using an XRF microscanner, Marine Geology, vol.229, issue.3-4, pp.209-225, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.margeo.2006.03.002

A. Klingebiel, A. Rechiniac, and M. Vigneaux, ??tude radiographique de la structure des s??diments meubles, Marine Geology, vol.5, issue.1, pp.71-76, 1967.
DOI : 10.1016/0025-3227(67)90069-2

A. K. Krause, S. W. Franks, J. D. Kalma, R. J. Loughran, and J. S. Rowan, Multi-parameter fingerprinting of sediment deposition in a small gullied catchment in SE Australia, CATENA, vol.53, issue.4, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00085-7

H. Kuhlmann, T. Freudenthal, P. Helmke, and H. Meggers, Reconstruction of paleoceanography off NW Africa during the last 40,000 years: influence of local and regional factors on sediment accumulation, Marine Geology, vol.207, issue.1-4, pp.209-224, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.margeo.2004.03.017

E. Lallier-vergès, J. Hayes, M. Boussafir, N. P. Tribovillard, D. Zaback et al., Productivity-induced sulphur enrichment of hydrocarbon-rich sediments from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation, Chemical Geology, vol.134, issue.4, pp.277-288, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0009-2541(96)00093-9

L. Lamaison, Caractérisation des particules atmosphériques et identification de leurs sources dans une atmosphére urbaine sous influence industrielle, Thèse de doctorat de l'Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, p.351, 2006.

J. P. Lamers, An Assessment of Wind Erosion Control Techniques in Niger. Financial and Economic Analyses of Windbreaks and Millet Crop Residues, 1995.

J. Lamers, Wind erosion in Niger: Former perception, troditional techniques ta prevent and combat wind erosion, and former adoption of madern sail conservation technologies, Wind erosion in Africa and West Asia Prob/ems and control strategies. Proceedings of the Expert Group Meeting, pp.173-86, 1997.

J. P. Lamers and P. R. Feil, Farmer's knowledge and management of spatial soil and crop growth variability in Niger, West Africa, Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol.43, pp.375-389, 1995.

N. Lancaster and A. Baas, Influence of vegetation cover on sand transport by wind: field studies at Owens Lake, California, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, pp.69-82, 1998.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199801)23:1<69::AID-ESP823>3.0.CO;2-G

J. Lang, S. Alidou, D. Dubois, and A. Houessou, Contribution au débat sur le concept de Continental terminal dans les complexes continentaux sahariens et dans les bassins sédimentaires côtiers de l'Ouest africain, 1982.

H. Laurent, N. Amato, and T. Lebel, How important is the contribution of the mesoscale convective complexes to the Sahelian rainfall?, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, vol.23, issue.5-6, pp.629-633, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0079-1946(98)00099-8

L. Lavauden, Les forêts du Sahara, Revue des eaux et forêts, LXV, pp.265-277, 1927.

L. Barbé, L. Lebel, and T. , Rainfall climatology of the HAPEX-Sahel region during the years 1950???1990, Journal of Hydrology, vol.188, issue.189, pp.188-189, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03154-X

L. Barbé, L. Lebel, T. Tapsoba, and D. , Rainfall Variability in West Africa during the Years 1950???90, Journal of Climate, vol.15, issue.2, pp.187-202, 2002.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<0187:RVIWAD>2.0.CO;2

L. Floc-'h and E. , Desertification in the Near East region, perspectives, strategies and plan of action, IATF Meeting on Desertification, vol.27, 1996.

L. Houérou and H. N. , Evolution climatique et désertisation In : Les climats subtropicaux et leur évolution, pp.639-668, 1993.

L. Treut and H. , Les sc??narios globaux de changement climatique et leurs incertitudes, Comptes Rendus Geoscience, vol.335, issue.6-7, pp.525-533, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1631-0713(03)00096-8

T. Lebel and B. Ali, Recent trends in the Central and Western Sahel rainfall regime (1990???2007), Journal of Hydrology, vol.375, issue.1-2, pp.52-64, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.11.030

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00412630

T. Lebel, B. Cappelaere, L. Descroix, S. Galle, N. Hanan et al., AMMA-CATCH studies in the Sahelian region of West-Africa: An overview, Journal of Hydrology, vol.375, issue.1-2, pp.3-13, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.03.020

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ird-00392544

T. Lebel, A. Diedhiou, and H. Laurent, Seasonal cycle and interannual variability of the Sahelian rainfall at hydrological scales, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.11, issue.2, pp.1401-1411, 2003.
DOI : 10.1029/2001JD001580

T. Lebel, J. D. Taupin, and N. Amato, Rainfall monitoring during HAPEX-Sahel. 1. General rainfall conditions and climatology, Journal of Hydrology, vol.188, issue.189, pp.188-189, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03155-1

M. Leblanc, G. Favreau, S. Massuel, S. Tweed, M. Loireau et al., Land clearance and hydrology change in the Sahel : SW Niger. Global and Planetery Change, pp.135-150, 2007.

M. Leblanc, G. Favreau, S. Tweed, C. Leduc, M. Razack et al., Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa, Hydrogeology Journal, vol.43, issue.11, pp.97-100, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ird-00164820

C. Leduc, J. Bromley, and P. Schroeter, Water table fluctuation and recharge in semi-arid climate: some results of the HAPEX-Sahel hydrodynamic survey (Niger), Journal of Hydrology, vol.188, issue.189, pp.188-189, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03156-3

C. Leduc, G. Favreau, and P. Shroeter, Long-term rise in a Sahelian water-table: the Continental Terminal in South-West Niger, Journal of Hydrology, vol.243, issue.1-2, pp.43-54, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00403-0

J. Léonard and J. L. Rajot, Influence of termites on runoff and infiltration: quantification and analysis, Geoderma, vol.104, issue.1-2, pp.17-40, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00054-4

J. Léonard, E. Perrier, and J. L. Rajot, Biological macropores effect on runoff and infiltration: a combined experimental and modelling approach, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol.104, issue.2, pp.277-285, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.agee.2003.11.015

Y. Hôte, G. Mahé, B. Somé, and J. P. Triboulet, Analysis of a sahelian annual rainfall index from 1896 to 2000; the drought continues, Hydrological Sciences Journal, issue.4, pp.47-563, 2002.

M. Loireau, Espaces, ressources, usages, p.411, 1998.
DOI : 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8658

URL : http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/8658

M. Loireau, J. M. D-'herbes, and E. Delabre, Evolution et place de la jachère à travers une analyse spatiale des interactions ressources-usages au Sahel agro-pastoral nigérien, pp.32-42, 2000.

H. Lubès-niel, L. Séguis, and R. Sabatier, ??tude de stationnarit?? des caract??ristiques des ??v??nements pluvieux de la station de Niamey sur la p??riode 1956???1998, Comptes Rendus de l'Acad??mie des Sciences - Series IIA - Earth and Planetary Science, vol.333, issue.10, pp.333-645, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S1251-8050(01)01690-1

E. Machens, Contribution à l'étude de formations du socle cristallin et de la couverture sédimentaire de 1'Ouest de la République du Niger, Mémoire Bureau Recherches Geologiques Minières, vol.82, p.167, 1973.

D. J. Mackinnon, G. D. Clow, R. K. Tigges, R. L. Reynolds, P. S. et al., Comparison of aerodynamically and model-derived roughness lengths (zo) over diverse surfaces, pp.103-113, 2004.

G. Mahe and J. C. Olivry, Assessment of freshwater yields to the ocean along the intertropical Atlantic coast of Africa (1951???1989), Comptes Rendus de l'Acad??mie des Sciences - Series IIA - Earth and Planetary Science, vol.328, issue.9, pp.621-626, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S1251-8050(99)80159-1

M. Mainguet and M. C. Chemin, Localisation d'une unité écologique expérimentale dans la région de Maradi (Niger) : Précipitations et vents dans le Sahel de la république du Niger et étude des variations dues à une crise climatique (1968-1973) Rapport n° 4, ACC-lutte contre les effets de l'aridité, p.99, 1978.

M. Mainguet and M. Chemin, Wind degradation on the sandy soils of the Sahel of Mali and Niger and its part in desertification, Acta Mechanica, vol.2, pp.113-143, 1991.
DOI : 10.1007/978-3-7091-6703-8_9

M. Issa, O. Défarge, C. Trichet, J. Valentin, and C. , Microbiotic soil crusts in the Sahel of Western Niger and their influence on soil porosity and water dynamics, CATENA, vol.77, issue.1, pp.48-55, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.catena.2008.12.013

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00338694

B. Marticorena and G. Bergametti, Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 1. Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.2, issue.B, pp.16415-16430, 1995.
DOI : 10.1029/95JD00690

B. Marticorena, G. Bergametti, D. Gillette, and J. Belnap, Factors controlling threshold friction velocity in semiarid and arid areas of the United States, Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, vol.5, issue.D19, pp.23277-23287, 1997.
DOI : 10.1029/97JD01303

B. Marticorena, B. Chatenet, J. L. Rajot, S. Traoré, M. Coulibaly et al., Temporal variability of mineral dust concentrations over West Africa: analyses of a pluriannual monitoring from the AMMA Sahelian Dust Transect, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, vol.10, issue.3, pp.8051-8101, 2010.
DOI : 10.5194/acpd-10-8051-2010

B. Marticorena, M. Kardhous, G. Bergametti, Y. Callot, P. Chazette et al., Surface and aerodynamic roughness in arid and semiarid areas and their relation to radar backscatter coefficient, Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, vol.73, issue.151, pp.13-35, 2006.
DOI : 10.1029/2004JF000281

W. Martin-rosales and C. Leduc, Dynamiques de vidange d'une mare temporaire au Sahel : l'exemple de Banizoumbou (Sud-Ouest du Niger), Comptes Rendus Geoscience, vol.335, issue.5, pp.461-468, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1631-0713(03)00059-2

S. Massuel, Evolution récente de la ressource en eau consécutive aux changements climatiques et environnementaux du sud-ouest du Niger, Thèse de Doctorat, p.238, 2005.

V. Mathon, H. Laurent, and T. Lebel, Mesoscale Convective System Rainfall in the Sahel, Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol.41, issue.11, pp.1081-1092, 2002.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<1081:MCSRIT>2.0.CO;2

K. Mcguffie, A. Henderson-sellers, H. Zhang, T. B. Durbidge, and A. J. Pitman, Global climate sensitivity to tropical deforestation, Global and Planetary Change, vol.10, issue.1-4, pp.97-128, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0921-8181(94)00022-6

J. Mcintire, J. Hopkins, J. Lamers, and L. K. Fussell, The millet system of western Niger. I. Crop production, p.135, 1989.

D. Mercone, J. Thomson, R. H. Abu-zied, I. W. Croudace, and E. Rohling, High-resolution geochemical and micropalaeontological profiling of the most recent eastern Mediterranean sapropel, Marine Geology, vol.177, issue.1-2, pp.25-44, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0025-3227(01)00122-0

D. Mercone, J. Thomson, I. W. Croudace, G. Siani, M. Paterne et al., Duration of S1, the most recent sapropel in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, as indicated by accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon and geochemical evidence, Paleoceanography, vol.66, issue.3, pp.336-347, 2000.
DOI : 10.1029/1999PA000397

K. Michels, M. V. Sivakumar, and B. E. Allison, Wind erosion in the Southern Sahelian Zone and induced constraints to pearl millet production, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, vol.67, issue.1-2, pp.65-77, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0168-1923(93)90050-R

K. Michels, M. V. Sivakumar, and B. E. Allison, Wind erosion control using crop residue I. Effects on soil flux and soil properties, Field Crops Research, vol.40, issue.2, pp.101-110, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-4290(94)00094-S

K. Michels, M. V. Sivakumar, and B. E. Allison, Wind erosion control using crop residue II. Effects on millet establishment and yields, Field Crops Research, vol.40, issue.2, pp.111-118, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0378-4290(94)00095-T

S. Migeon, O. Weber, J. C. Faugeres, and J. Saint-paul, SCOPIX: A new X-ray imaging system for core analysis, Geo-Marine Letters, vol.18, issue.3, pp.251-255, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/s003670050076

A. C. Mix, S. E. Harris, and T. R. Janecek, Estimating Lithology from Nonintrusive Reflectance Spectra: Leg 138, Proc. ODP Sci. Results, vol.138, pp.413-428, 1995.
DOI : 10.2973/odp.proc.sr.138.121.1995

R. Morel, Atlas agroclimatique des pays de la zone du CILSS, Comité Permanent de Lutte contre la Sècheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS), Programme Agrhymet, p.162, 1992.

V. Moron, N. Philippon, and B. Fontaine, Skill of Sahel rainfall variability in four atmospheric GCMs forced by prescribed SST, Geophysical Research Letters, vol.11, issue.23, pp.222110-1029, 2003.
DOI : 10.1029/2003GL018006

S. E. Nicholson, The Nature of Rainfall Fluctuations in Subtropical West Africa, Monthly Weather Review, vol.108, issue.4, pp.2191-2208, 1980.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0493(1980)108<0473:TNORFI>2.0.CO;2

W. G. Nickling, Aeolian sediment transport and deposition, Sediment transport and depositional processes, pp.293-350, 1994.

W. G. Nickling and J. A. Gillies, Emission of fine-grained particles from desert soils. in "Paleoclimatology and Paleometeorology: Modern and past pattern of global atmospheric transport, Leinen M. & Sarnthein M, pp.133-165, 1989.

J. Nyssen, M. Veyret-picot, J. Poesen, J. Moeyersons, H. Mitiku et al., The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Soil Use and Management, pp.55-64, 2004.

S. Omar-haroun, Impact de la sécheresse récente soudano-sahélienne sur l'écoulement du Nil, pp.205-213, 1995.

J. Ortiz, A. C. Mix, S. Harris, and S. O-'connell, Diffuse spectral reflectance as a proxy for percent carbonate content in North Atlantic sediments, Paleoceanography, vol.9, issue.Appendix A, pp.171-186, 1999.
DOI : 10.1029/1998PA900021

H. F. Osborn, Our plundered planet, Faber and Faber, 1948.

I. Ousseini, Étude de la répartition des formations sableuses et interprétation des dépôts éoliens dans le Liptako oriental, Thèse 3ème cycle, Mémoires des Sciences de la Terre n°86, 1986.

I. Ousseini and A. Morel, Utilisation des formations alluviales azoïques pour l'étude des paléoenvironnements du Pléistocène supérieur et de l, pp.85-90, 1989.

P. Ozer, Les lithométéores en region sahélienne: un indicateur climatique de la désertification. Revue internatinale d'écologie et de géographie tropicale, pp.1-317, 2001.

P. Ozer, C. Bodart, and B. Tychon, Climatic analysis of the Gour?? area, eastern Niger: recent changes and environmental impacts, Cybergeo, vol.308, pp.1-24, 2005.
DOI : 10.4000/cybergeo.3338

P. Ozer and M. Erpicum, Méthodologie pour une meilleure représentation spatiotemporelle des fluctuations pluviométriques observées au Niger depuis, 1905.

D. E. Parker, M. Jackson, and E. B. Horton, The 1961-1990 GISST2.2 sea surface temperature and sea-ice climatology, p.42, 1995.

N. Philippon and . B. Fontaine, A new statistical predictability scheme for, C.R Acad. Sci, vol.329, pp.1-6, 1968.

J. M. Prospero and R. T. Nees, Dust Concentration in the Atmosphere of the Equatorial North Atlantic: Possible Relationship to the Sahelian Drought, Science, vol.196, issue.4295, p.4295, 0196.
DOI : 10.1126/science.196.4295.1196

K. Pye, Loess, Progress in Physical Geography, vol.8, issue.2, pp.176-217, 1984.
DOI : 10.1177/030913338400800202

J. L. Rajot, Wind blown sediment mass budget of Sahelian village land units in Niger, Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, vol.172, issue.5, pp.523-531, 2001.
DOI : 10.2113/172.5.523

J. L. Rajot, S. C. Alfaro, L. Gomes, and A. Gaudichet, Soil crusting on sandy soils and its influence on wind erosion, Catena, pp.1-16, 2003.

K. Rasmussen, B. Fog, and J. E. Madsen, Desertification in reverse? Observations from northern Burkina Faso, Global Environmental Change, vol.11, issue.4, pp.271-282, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00005-X

C. Raynaut, Societies and nature in the Sahel: ecological diversity and social dynamics, Global Environmental Change, vol.11, issue.1, pp.9-18, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00041-8

H. E. Reineck and I. B. Singh, Depositional environments and facies, p.557, 1980.

T. O. Richter, S. Van-der-gaast, B. Koster, A. Vaars, R. Gieles et al., The Avaatech XRF Core Scanner: technical description and applications to NE Atlantic sediments, New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis. Special Publication, pp.39-50, 2006.
DOI : 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.267.01.03

S. Ringrose and W. Matheson, The Use of Landsat MSS Imagery to Determine the Aerial Extent of Woody Vegetation Cover Change in the West-Central Sahel, Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, vol.2, issue.1, pp.16-25, 1992.
DOI : 10.2307/2997327

U. Roehl and L. J. Abrams, High-resolution, downhole, and nondestructive core measurements from Sites 999 and 1001 in the Caribbean Sea: application to the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum, Proc. ODP, Sci. Res, 2000.
DOI : 10.2973/odp.proc.sr.165.009.2000

G. D. Sigurdsson, G. Acton, and . Draper, College Station: TX, pp.191-203

R. G. Rothwell, B. Hoogakker, J. Thomson, I. W. Croudace, and M. Frenz, Turbidite emplacement on the southern Balearic Abyssal Plain (western Mediterranean Sea) during Marine Isotope Stages 1???3: an application of ITRAX XRF scanning of sediment cores to lithostratigraphic analysis, New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis, pp.79-98, 2006.
DOI : 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.267.01.06

D. P. Rowell and J. R. Milford, On the Generation of African Squall Lines, Journal of Climate, vol.6, issue.6, pp.1181-1193, 1993.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<1181:OTGOAS>2.0.CO;2

M. Sabre, M. V. Lopez, S. C. Alfaro, J. L. Rajot, and . L. Gomes, Characterization of the fine dust particles production process for two unvegetated soil surface types, Wind Erosion: An International Symposium, Commemorating the 50th anniversary of the USDA's wind erosion research at Kansas State University, 1997.

R. R. Schneider, A. Cramp, J. E. Damuth, R. N. Hiscott, R. O. Kowsmann et al., Color-reflectance measurements obtained from Leg 155 cores, Proc. ODP Init. Rept, pp.697-700, 1995.
DOI : 10.2973/odp.proc.ir.155.123.1995

L. Seguis, B. Cappelaere, G. Milesi, C. Peugeot, S. Massuel et al., Simulated impacts of climate change and land-clearing on runoff from a small Sahelian catchment, Hydrological Processes, pp.3401-3413, 2004.
DOI : 10.1002/hyp.1503

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/ird-00187211

J. Servain, Simple climatic indices for the tropical Atlantic Ocean and some applications, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.67, issue.C8, pp.15137-15146, 1991.
DOI : 10.1029/91JC01046

Y. Shao, M. R. Raupach, and P. A. Findlater, Effect of saltation bombardement on the entrainement of dust by wind, J. Geophys. Res, vol.98, pp.3023-3029, 1993.

L. R. Shreve, Statistical Law of Stream Numbers, The Journal of Geology, vol.74, issue.1, pp.17-37, 1966.
DOI : 10.1086/627137

M. V. Sivakumar, Agroclimatic aspects of rainfed agriculture in the Sudano-Sahelian zone, Soil, Crop and Water Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Sudano-Sahelian zone. Proceedings of an International Workshop, pp.7-11, 1987.

M. V. Sivakumar and K. Michels, Climate of Niger, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-009-1618-0_1

E. Smaling, J. Stoorvagel, and P. Windmeijer, Calculating soil nutrient balances in Africa at different scales, Fertilizer Research, vol.26, issue.3, pp.237-50, 1993.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00750642

A. Soumaila, Étude structurale, pétrographique et géochimique de la ceinture birimienne de Diagorou-Darbani, Liptako, Niger occidental (Afrique de l'Ouest), Thèse, université de Franche, 2000.

M. Sow, S. Alfaro, J. L. Rajot, and B. Marticoréna, Size resolved dust emission fluxes measured in Niger during 3 dust storms of the AMMA experiment, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol.9, issue.12, pp.3881-3891, 2009.
DOI : 10.5194/acp-9-3881-2009

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/bioemco-00396415

M. Sow, D. Goossens, and J. L. Rajot, Calibration of the MDCO dust collector and of four versions of the inverted frisbee dust deposition sampler, Geomorphology, vol.82, issue.3-4, pp.3-4, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.05.013

G. Sterk, L. Hermann, and A. Bationo, Wind-blown nutrient transport and soil productivity changes in southwest Niger. Land control, Proc. Intern. Symp, 1996.

G. Sterk, A. F. Jacob, and J. H. Van-boxel, Effect of turbulent flux structures on saltation sand transport in the atmospheric boundary layer, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, pp.877-887, 1998.

G. Sterk and P. A. Raats, Comparison of Models Describing the Vertical Distribution of Wind-Eroded Sediment, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.60, issue.6, pp.1914-1919, 1996.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj1996.03615995006000060042x

G. Sterk and W. Spaan, Wind Erosion Control with Crop Residues in the Sahel, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.61, issue.3, 1997.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj1997.03615995006100030028x

G. Sterk and A. Stein, Mapping Wind-Blown Mass Transport by Modeling Variability in Space and Time, Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol.61, issue.1, pp.232-239, 1997.
DOI : 10.2136/sssaj1997.03615995006100010032x

J. E. Stout, WIND EROSION WITHIN A SIMPLE FIELD, Transactions of the ASAE, vol.33, issue.5, pp.1597-1600, 1990.
DOI : 10.13031/2013.31513

J. E. Stout and T. M. Zobeck, THE WOLFFORTH FIELD EXPERIMENT: A WIND EROSION STUDY, Soil Science, vol.161, issue.9, pp.616-632, 1996.
DOI : 10.1097/00010694-199609000-00006

Y. Sudesh, M. S. Chauhan, and A. Sharma, Characterisation of bio-aerosols during dust storm period in N-NW India, Atmospheric Environnement, vol.41, pp.6063-6073, 2007.

R. B. Stull, An introduction to boundary layer meteorology, Atmos. Sci. Library, p.666, 1991.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-009-3027-8

B. Sultan, Influence du climat sur la survenue des épidémies de méningite en Afrique de l'ouest. Nouvelle, M/S n°5, pp.470-471, 2005.

B. Sultan, C. Baron, M. Dingkuhn, B. Sarr, and S. Janicot, Agricultural impacts of largescale variability of the West African monsoon Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, pp.93-110, 2005.

B. Sultan and S. Janicot, Abrupt shift of the ITCZ over West Africa and intra-seasonal variability, Geophysical Research Letters, vol.40, issue.20, pp.3353-3356, 2000.
DOI : 10.1029/1999GL011285

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00162239

B. Sultan and S. Janicot, The West African Monsoon Dynamics. Part II: The ???Preonset??? and ???Onset??? of the Summer Monsoon, Journal of Climate, vol.16, issue.21, pp.3407-3427, 2003.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<3407:TWAMDP>2.0.CO;2

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00155510

J. L. Tackett and R. W. Pearson, SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL CRUSTS FORMED BY SIMULATED RAINFALL, Soil Science, vol.99, issue.6, pp.407-413, 1965.
DOI : 10.1097/00010694-196506000-00010

C. M. Taylor, E. F. Lambin, N. Stephenne, R. J. Harding, and R. L. Essery, The Influence of Land Use Change on Climate in the Sahel, Journal of Climate, vol.15, issue.24, pp.15-3615, 2002.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<3615:TIOLUC>2.0.CO;2

D. A. Taylor, Dust in the Wind, Environmental Health Perspectives, vol.110, issue.2, pp.80-87, 2002.
DOI : 10.1289/ehp.110-a80

E. Taylor-powell, A. Manu, S. Geiger, M. Ouattara, and A. S. Juo, Integrated management of agricultural watersheds: Land tenure and indigenous knowledge of soil and crop management, TropSoils Bulletin, pp.91-95, 1991.

J. Thomson, I. W. Croudace, and R. G. Rothwell, A geochemical application of the ITRAX scanner to a sediment core containing eastern Mediterranean sapropel units, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol.267, issue.1, 2006.
DOI : 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.267.01.05

R. G. Rothwell, New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis, Special Publication, vol.267, pp.65-77

A. D. Tidjani, Impacts des changements climatiques et des pratiques agro-pastorales sur l'ensablement et l'émission des aérosols terrigènes, ANR, Programme Jeunes Equipes Associées à l'IRD (JEAI), 2010.

R. Tjallingii, U. Röhl, M. Kölling, and T. Bickert, Influence of the water content on Xray fluorescence core-scanning measurements in soft marine sediments, Geochem., Geophys, 2007.

A. V. Todorov, Sahel: The Changing Rainfall Regime and the ???Normals??? Used for its Assessment, Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, vol.24, issue.2, pp.97-107, 1985.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0450(1985)024<0097:STCRRA>2.0.CO;2

T. Sekou and . Prokhoroff, Etude démographique du Niger. Données individuelles. Résultats définitifs, INSEE, vol.88, 1963.

C. Valentin and L. M. Bresson, Morphology, genesis and classification of surface crusts in loamy and sandy soils, Geoderma, vol.55, issue.3-4, pp.225-245, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0016-7061(92)90085-L

C. Valentin, J. M. D-'herbès, and J. Poesen, Soil and water components of banded vegetation patterns, CATENA, vol.37, issue.1-2, pp.1-24, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00053-3

C. Valentin, J. Poesen, and Y. Li, Gully erosion: Impacts, factors and control, CATENA, vol.63, issue.2-3, pp.132-153, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.catena.2005.06.001

C. Valentin, J. L. Rajot, and D. Mitja, Responses of soil crusting, runoff and erosion to fallowing in the sub-humid and semi-arid regions of West Africa, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol.104, issue.2, pp.287-302, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.035

R. S. Van-pelt, P. Peters, and S. Visser, Laboratory wind tunnel testing of three commonly used saltation impact sensors, Aeolian Research, vol.1, issue.1-2, pp.55-62, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.aeolia.2009.05.001

K. L. Verosub and A. P. Roberts, Environmental magnetism: Past, present, and future, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol.346, issue.44, pp.2175-2192, 1995.
DOI : 10.1029/94JB02713

O. R. Vetaas, Spatial and Temporal Vegetation Changes Along a Moisture Gradient in Northeastern Sudan, Biotropica, vol.25, issue.2, pp.164-175, 1993.
DOI : 10.2307/2389180

J. P. Vicat, J. M. Léger, Y. Ahmed, and L. Willems, Les indices de déformations plioquaternaires de la bordure occidentale du bassin des Iullemmeden dans la région de Niamey, Revue de Géographie Alpine, (numéro hors-série) I, pp.15-24, 1994.

S. M. Visser, G. Sterk, and D. Karssenberg, Wind erosion modelling in a Sahelian environment, Environmental Modelling & Software, vol.20, issue.1, pp.69-84, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.envsoft.2003.12.010

S. M. Visser, L. Stroosnijder, and W. J. Chardon, Nutrient losses by wind and water, measurement and modelling, Catena, pp.1-22, 2005.

P. A. Vlag, P. P. Kruiver, and M. J. Dekkers, Evaluating climate change by multivariate statistical techniques on magnetic and chemical properties of marine sediments (Azores region), Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol.212, issue.1-2, pp.23-44, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0031-0182(04)00302-5

G. Vuillaume, Analyse quantitative du rôle du milieu physico-climatique sur le ruissellement et l'érosion à l'issue de bassins de quelques hectares en zone sahélienne (Bassin de Kountkouzout, Niger), Cahiers ORSTOM, série Hydrologie, issue.4, pp.87-132, 1969.

I. Wainer and J. Et-soares, North northeast Brazil rainfall and its decadal-scale relationship to wind stress and sea surface temperature, Geophysical Research Letters, vol.20, issue.no 2, pp.277-280, 1997.
DOI : 10.1029/96GL03970

M. N. Ward, Diagnosis and Short-Lead Time Prediction of Summer Rainfall in Tropical North Africa at Interannual and Multidecadal Timescales, Journal of Climate, vol.11, issue.12, pp.3167-3191, 1998.
DOI : 10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3167:DASLTP>2.0.CO;2

R. J. Wasson, G. Caitcheon, A. S. Murray, M. Mcculloch, and J. Quade, Sourcing Sediment Using Multiple Tracers in the Catchment of Lake Argyle, Northwestern Australia, Environmental Management, vol.29, issue.5, pp.29-634, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/s00267-001-0049-4

G. Williams, SOME ASPECTS OF THE EOLIAN SALTATION LOAD, Sedimentology, vol.34, issue.3, pp.257-287, 1964.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1964.tb00642.x

L. Willems, A. Pouclet, F. Lenoir, and J. P. Vicat, Phénomènes karstiques en milieux non carbonatés, Z. Geomorph. N.F, vol.103, pp.193-214, 1996.

P. C. Wu, J. C. Tsai, F. C. Li, S. C. Lung, and H. J. Su, Increased levels of ambient fungal spores in Taiwan are associated with dust events from China, Atmospheric Environment, vol.38, issue.29, pp.4879-4886, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.05.039

T. Yokoyam and S. Nakashima, Diffusivity anisotropy in a rhyolite and its relation to pore structure, Engineering Geology, vol.80, issue.3-4, pp.328-335, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.07.002

H. G. Yeo and J. H. Kim, SPM and fungal spores in the ambient air of west Korea during the Asian dust (Yellow sand) period, Atmospheric Environment, vol.36, issue.35, pp.5437-5442, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00672-6

B. Yu and D. T. Neil, Long-term variations in regional rainfall in the south-west of Western Australia and the difference between average and high intensity rainfalls, International Journal of Climatology, vol.11, issue.1, pp.77-88, 1993.
DOI : 10.1002/joc.3370130106

C. S. Zender, R. L. Miller, and I. Tegen, Quantifying Mineral Dust Mass Budgets: Terminology, Constraints, and Current Estimates, J. Geophys. Res, vol.85, issue.48, pp.509-512, 2004.

C. L. Zhang, X. Y. Zou, J. R. Gong, L. Y. Lui, and Y. Z. Liu, Aerodynamic roughness of cultivated soil and its influences on soil erosion by wind in a wind tunnel, Soil and Tillage Research, vol.75, issue.1, pp.53-59, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0167-1987(03)00159-4

Y. Zhu and Q. Cai, Rill erosion processes and its factors in different soils Gully Erosion Under Global Change, pp.96-108, 2004.

T. M. Zobeck, G. Sterk, R. Funk, J. L. Rajot, and J. E. Stout, Measurement and data analysis methods for field-scale wind erosion studies and model validation, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol.67, issue.11, pp.1163-1188
DOI : 10.1002/esp.1033

L. Limites-non-Érodables, jachères ou bandes végétalisés) qui entourent les parcelles ainsi que les postes de BSNE ont été repérées par leurs coordonnées géographiques grâce à l'utilisation d'un GPS de type Garmin, Ces coordonnées ont été ensuite converties en coordonnées cartésiennes dans la projection UTM

. Ainsi, chaque limite non érodable, rectiligne et fixe, a été caractérisée par une équation linéaire de type Y = aX + b

M. Appartenant-À-la-fois-À-la-limite-non-Érodable-et-À-la-droite, BSNE I , M) alors on aura : à partir de l'équation (1) : Y m =aX m + b (3) à partir de l'équation

P. Topographie-des-parcelles and . Le-lever-topographique-a-Été-effectué,-en-septembre, avec l'utilisation d'un niveau de chantier (lunette de visée de type Wild Heerbrugg NK 10), une mire et une chaîne graduée longue de 50 m. Le réticule de la lunette de visée porte 2 traits symétriques par rapport au trait niveleur. Ainsi, l'image de la mire (tenue perpendiculairement à la visée) se projette sur le réticule et la lecture de hauteur se fait aux 3 niveaux du réticule (bas, milieu, haut) Ces mesures permettent de corriger d'éventuelles erreurs de lecture puisque l'altitude mesurée, 2006.

L. Est-exprimée-en-centimètre, L'établissement définitif de la carte est réalisé par utilisation du logiciel Surfer