T. Abe, A. Mujahid, K. Sato, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, Possible role of avian uncoupling protein in down-regulating mitochondrial superoxide production in skeletal muscle of fasted chickens, FEBS Letters, vol.17, issue.20, pp.4815-4822, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.07.070

H. Barré, F. Cohen-adad, C. Duchamp, and J. L. Rouanet, Multilocular adipocytes from muscovy ducklings differentiated in response to cold acclimation., The Journal of Physiology, vol.375, issue.1, pp.27-38, 1986.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016103

H. Barré, F. Cohen-adad, and J. L. Rouanet, Two daily glucagon in ections induce nonshivering thermogenesis in Muscovy ducklings, Am. J. Physiol, vol.252, pp.616-620, 1987.

H. Barré, A. Geloen, J. Chatonnet, A. Dittmar, and J. L. Rouanet, Potentiated muscular thermogenesis in cold-acclimated muscovy duckling, Am. J. Physiol, vol.249, pp.533-538, 1985.

E. Bedu, F. Chainier, B. Sibille, R. Meister, G. Dallevet et al., Increased lipogenesis in isolated hepatocytes from cold-acclimated ducklings, American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.283, issue.5, pp.1245-1253, 2002.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.00681.2001

C. Benistant, C. Duchamp, F. Cohen-adad, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barré, Increased in vitro fatty acid supply and cellular transport capacities in cold-acclimated ducklings (Cairina moschata), Am. J. Physiol, vol.275, pp.683-690, 1998.

M. D. Brand, Measurement of mitochondrial protonmotive force, pp.39-62, 1995.

R. R. Chaffee and J. C. Roberts, Temperature Acclimation in Birds and Mammals, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.33, issue.1, pp.155-202, 1971.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ph.33.030171.001103

P. Clerc, M. Rigoulet, X. Leverve, and E. Fontaine, Nitric oxide increases oxidative phosphorylation efficiency, Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes, vol.113, issue.2, pp.158-166, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s10863-007-9074-1

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00162192

A. Collin, J. Buyse, P. Van-as, V. M. Darras, R. D. Malheiros et al., Cold-induced enhancement of avian uncoupling protein expression, heat production, and triiodothyronine concentrations in broiler chicks, General and Comparative Endocrinology, vol.130, issue.1, pp.70-77, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0016-6480(02)00571-3

A. Collin, M. Taouis, J. Buyse, N. B. Ifuta, V. M. Darras et al., Thyroid status, but not insulin status, affects expression of avian uncoupling protein mRNA in chicken, American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology And Metabolism, vol.284, issue.4, pp.771-777, 2003.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpendo.00478.2002

F. Criscuolo, M. D. Gonzalez-barroso, L. Maho, Y. Ricquier, D. Bouillaud et al., Avian uncoupling protein expressed in yeast mitochondria prevents endogenous free radical damage, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.14, issue.1414, pp.803-810, 2005.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1999.0597

F. Depocas and J. S. Hart, Use of the Pauling oxygen analy er for measurement of oxygen consumption of animals in open-circuit systems and in a short-lag, closed-circuit apparatus, J. Appl. Physiol, vol.10, pp.388-392, 1957.

C. Duchamp and H. Barré, Skeletal muscle as the ma or site of nonshivering thermogenesis in cold-acclimated ducklings, Am. J. Physiol, vol.265, pp.1076-1083, 1993.

C. Duchamp, F. Cohen-adad, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barré, Histochemical arguments for muscular non-shivering thermogenesis in muscovy ducklings., The Journal of Physiology, vol.457, issue.1, pp.27-45, 1992.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019363

C. Duchamp, F. Marmonier, F. Denjean, J. Lachuer, T. P. Eldershaw et al., Regulatory, cellular and molecular aspects of avian muscle nonshivering thermogenesis, Ornis Fennica, vol.76, pp.151-165, 1999.

E. Dumonteil, H. Barré, and G. Meissner, xpression of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca 22 transport proteins in cold-acclimated ducklings, Am. J. Physiol, vol.269, pp.955-960, 1995.

K. S. Echtay, D. Roussel, J. St-pierre, M. B. Jekabsons, S. Cadenas et al., Superoxide activates mitochondrial uncoupling proteins, Nature, vol.415, issue.6867, pp.96-99, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/415096a

J. A. Harper, J. A. Stuart, M. B. Jekabsons, D. Roussel, K. M. Brindle et al., Artifactual uncoupling by uncoupling protein 3 in yeast mitochondria at the concentrations found in mouse and rat skeletal-muscle mitochondria, Biochemical Journal, vol.361, issue.1, pp.49-56, 2002.
DOI : 10.1042/bj3610049

R. Hissa, Controlling mechanisms in avian temperature regulation a review, Acta Physiol. Scand, vol.132, pp.1-148, 1988.

D. W. Johnston, The absence of brown adipose tissue in birds, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, vol.40, issue.4, pp.1107-1108, 1971.
DOI : 10.1016/0300-9629(71)90298-2

G. Lang and G. Michal, -lucose-6-phosphate and -fructose-6-phosphate, Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, pp.1238-1242, 1974.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00209751

G. Lusk, Animal calorimetry, analysis of the oxidation of mixtures carbohydrate and fat, a correction, J. Biol. Chem, vol.59, pp.41-42, 1924.

A. Mujahid, M. Ueda, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, Expression of Avian UCP and ANT in Skeletal Muscle of Cold-exposed Laying and Meat-type Chickens, The Journal of Poultry Science, vol.42, issue.3, pp.230-237, 2005.
DOI : 10.2141/jpsa.42.230

C. Ojano-dirain, M. Toyomizu, T. Wing, M. Cooper, and W. G. Bottje, Gene Expression in Breast Muscle and Duodenum from Low and High Feed Efficient Broilers, Poultry Science, vol.86, issue.2, pp.372-381, 2007.
DOI : 10.1093/ps/86.2.372

S. Raimbault, S. Dridi, F. Denjean, J. Lachuer, E. Couplan et al., An uncoupling protein homologue putatively involved in facultative muscle thermogenesis in birds, Biochemical Journal, vol.353, issue.3, pp.441-444, 2001.
DOI : 10.1042/bj3530441

B. Rey, L. G. Halsey, V. Dolmazon, J. L. Rouanet, D. Roussel et al., ong-term fasting decreases mitochondrial avian UCPmediated oxygen consumption in hypometabolic king penguins, Am. J. Physiol, vol.295, pp.92-100, 2008.

B. Rey, D. Roussel, C. Romestaing, M. Belouze, J. L. Rouanet et al., Up-regulation of avian uncoupling protein in cold-acclimated and hyperthyroid ducklings prevents reactive oxygen species production by skeletal muscle mitochondria, BMC Physiology, vol.10, issue.1, p.5, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/1472-6793-10-5

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539469

D. F. Rolfe, A. J. Hulbert, and M. D. Brand, Characteristics of mitochondrial proton leak and control of oxidative phosphorylation in the ma or oxygen-consuming tissues of the rat, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, vol.1118, pp.405-416, 1994.

D. Roussel, F. Lhenry, L. Ecochard, B. Semporé, J. L. Rouanet et al., Differential effects of endurance training and creatine depletion on regional mitochondrial adaptations in rat skeletal muscle, Biochemical Journal, vol.350, issue.2, pp.547-553, 2000.
DOI : 10.1042/bj3500547

D. Roussel, J. L. Rouanet, C. Duchamp, and H. Barré, Effects of cold acclimation and palmitate on energy coupling in duckling skeletal muscle mitochondria, FEBS Letters, vol.1183, issue.3, pp.258-262, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)01382-9

P. F. Scholander, R. Hock, W. Walters, F. Johnson, and L. Irving, HEAT REGULATION IN SOME ARCTIC AND TROPICAL MAMMALS AND BIRDS, The Biological Bulletin, vol.99, issue.2, pp.237-258, 1950.
DOI : 10.2307/1538741

E. L. Seifert, V. Bézaire, C. Estey, and M. E. Harper, Essential Role for Uncoupling Protein-3 in Mitochondrial Adaptation to Fasting but Not in Fatty Acid Oxidation or Fatty Acid Anion Export, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.283, issue.37, pp.25124-25131, 2008.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M803871200

V. P. Skulachev and S. P. Maslov, The role of nonphosphorylating oxidation in temperature regulation, Biochemistry (Moscow), vol.25, pp.1058-1064, 1960.

J. St-pierre, J. A. Buckinghan, S. J. Roebuck, and M. D. Brand, Topology of Superoxide Production from Different Sites in the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.277, issue.47, pp.44784-44790, 2002.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M207217200

D. A. Talbot, C. Duchamp, B. Rey, N. Hanuise, J. L. Rouanet et al., Uncoupling protein and ATP/ADP carrier increase mitochondrial proton conductance after cold adaptation of king penguins, The Journal of Physiology, vol.529, issue.Suppl. 6, pp.123-125, 2004.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063768

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00069390

D. A. Talbot, N. Hanuise, B. Rey, J. L. Rouanet, C. Duchamp et al., Superoxide activates a GDP-sensitive proton conductance in skeletal muscle mitochondria from king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.312, issue.4, pp.983-988, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.11.022

M. Toyomizu, M. Ueda, S. Sato, Y. Seki, K. Sato et al., Cold-induced mitochondrial uncoupling and expression of chicken UCP and ANT mRNA in chicken skeletal muscle, FEBS Letters, vol.85, issue.2-3, pp.313-318, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03395-1

M. Ueda, K. Watanabe, K. Sato, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, ANT mRNAs in the skeletal muscles of cold-exposed chickens, FEBS Letters, vol.271, issue.1, pp.11-17, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.febslet.2004.11.039

C. R. Vianna, T. Hagen, C. Y. Zhang, E. Bachman, O. Boss et al., Cloning and functional characteri ation of an uncoupling protein homolog in hummingbirds, Physiol. Genomics, vol.5, pp.137-145, 2001.

I. Walter and F. Seebacher, Endothermy in birds: underlying molecular mechanisms, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.212, issue.15, pp.2328-2336, 2009.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.029009

A. Arieli, A. Breman, and A. Meltzer, Cold thermogenesis in the summeracclimatized and cold-acclimated domestic fowl, Comp. Biochem. Physiol, issue.11, pp.3-11

H. Barré, F. Cohen-adad, C. Duchamp, and J. L. Rouanet, Multilocular adipocytes from muscovy ducklings differentiated in response to cold acclimation., The Journal of Physiology, vol.375, issue.1, p.33
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016103

H. Barré, A. Geloen, J. Chatonnet, A. Dittmar, and J. L. Rouanet, otentiated muscular thermogenesis in cold-acclimated muscovy duckling, Am. J. Physiol, vol.249, issue.11, pp.33-33

R. R. Chaffee and J. C. Roberts, Temperature Acclimation in Birds and Mammals, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.33, issue.1, p.1
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ph.33.030171.001103

F. Depocas and J. S. Hart, se of the auling oxygen analyzer for measurement of oxygen consumption of animals in open-circuit systems and in a short-lag, closed-circuit apparatus, J. Appl. Physiol, vol.10, issue.11, pp.33-33

C. Duchamp, F. Cohen-adad, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barré, ). istochemical arguments for muscular non-shivering thermogenesis in muscovy ducklings, J. Physiol, vol.457, issue.1

C. Duchamp, H. Barré, D. Delage, J. L. Rouanet, F. Cohen-adad et al., Nonshivering thermogenesis and adaptation to fasting in king penguin chicks, Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, vol.257, issue.11, p.1

E. H. Dunn, M. E. Halawani, W. O. Wilson, and R. E. Burger, n the variability in energy allocation of nestlings birds. The Auk Cold-acclimation and the role of catecholamines in body temperature regulation in male leghorns, Poultry Sci, vol.97, issue.49, pp.1-33

G. Heldmaier, S. Klaus, H. Wiesinger, U. Friedrichs, and M. Wenzel, Cold acclimation and thermogenesis, Living in the Cold, pp.33-33

R. Hissa, Controlling mechanisms in avian temperature regulation a review, Acta Physiol. Scand, vol.132, issue.11, pp.1-1

E. Hohtola, Facultative and obligatory thermogenesis in young birds: a cautionary note, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, vol.131, issue.4, p.33333
DOI : 10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00011-9

E. Hohtola, B. Barnes, C. H. Fairbanks, A. Institute, E. Visser et al., Shivering thermogenesis in birds and mammals evelopment of locomotion and endothermy in altricial and precocial birds, Life in the Cold: Evolution, Mechanisms, Adaptation, and Application. 12 th International Hibernation Symposium Avian Growth and Development: Evolution Within the Altricial-Precocial Spectrum

D. W. Johnston, The absence of brown adipose tissue in birds, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, vol.40, issue.4, pp.111-111
DOI : 10.1016/0300-9629(71)90298-2

G. Lusk, Animal calorimetry, analysis of the oxidation of mixtures carbohydrate and fat, a correction, J. Biol. Chem, vol.59, issue.11, p.1

K. Marjoniemi and E. Hohtola, () oes cold acclimation induce nonshivering thermogenesis in uvenile birds, J. Comp. Physiol. B, vol.170, pp.33-36

M. Nichelmann and B. Tzschentke, ntogeny of thermoregulation in precocial birds Comp, Biochem. Physiol. A, vol.131, issue.113

J. H. Olson, The ontogeny of shivering thermogenesis in the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), J. Exp. Biol, vol.191, issue.11

H. Rintamäki, A. Saarela, A. Marjakangas, and R. Hissa, Summer and Winter Temperature Regulation in the Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix, Physiological Zoology, vol.56, issue.2, pp.11-11
DOI : 10.1086/physzool.56.2.30156048

S. Saarela and O. Vakkuri, hotoperiod-induced changes in temperaturemetabolism curve, shivering threshold and body temperature in the pigeon, Experientia, vol.38, issue.11, pp.333-366

P. F. Scholander, R. Hock, W. Walters, F. Johnson, and L. Irving, eat regulation in some arctic and tropical mammals and birds, Biol. Bull, vol.99, issue.11, p.3

G. Untergasser, H. , and J. S. , evelopment of thermoregulation in ducklings, Can. J. Zool, vol.50, issue.11, p.113311

L. Teulier, J. L. Rouanet, D. Letexier, C. Romestaing, M. Belouze et al., Cold-acclimation-induced non-shivering thermogenesis in birds is associated with upregulation of avian UCP but not with innate uncoupling or altered ATP efficiency, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.213, issue.14
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.043489

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539497

D. R. Wekstein and J. F. Zolman, ntogeny of heat production in chicks. Fed. rocSpatial and temporal variability in the foraging areas of breeding king penguins. The Condor, pp.113-124, 2002.

J. B. Charrassin and C. A. Bost, Utilisation of the oceanic habitat by king penguins over the annual cycle, Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol.221, pp.285-297, 2001.
DOI : 10.3354/meps221285

H. Barré and B. Roussel, Thermal and metabolic adaptation to first cold-water immersion in juvenile penguins, Am. J. Physiol, vol.251, pp.456-462, 1986.

C. Duchamp, H. Barré, D. Delage, J. L. Rouanet, F. Cohen-adad et al., Nonshivering thermogenesis and adaptation to fasting in king penguin chicks, Am. J. Physiol, vol.257, pp.744-751, 1989.

Y. Cherel, V. Ridoux, and P. G. Rodhouse, Fish and squid in the diet of king penguin chicks, Aptenodytes patagonicus, during winter at sub-antarctic Crozet Islands, Marine Biology, vol.106, issue.4, pp.559-570, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00351323

T. Raclot, R. Groscolas, and Y. Cherel, Fatty acid evidence for the importance of myctophid fishes in the diet of king penguins, Aptenodytes patagonicus, Marine Biology, vol.132, issue.3, pp.523-533, 1998.
DOI : 10.1007/s002270050418

E. Vaillancourt, S. Prud-'homme, F. Haman, C. G. Guglielmo, and J. M. Weber, Energetics of a long-distance migrant shorebird (Philomachus pugnax) during cold exposure and running, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.208, issue.2, pp.317-342, 2005.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.01397

D. A. Talbot, C. Duchamp, B. Rey, N. Hanuise, J. L. Rouanet et al., Uncoupling protein and ATP/ADP carrier increase mitochondrial proton conductance after cold adaptation of king penguins, The Journal of Physiology, vol.529, issue.Suppl. 6, pp.123-135, 2004.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063768

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00069390

P. F. Scholander, R. Hock, W. Walters, F. Johnson, I. et al., HEAT REGULATION IN SOME ARCTIC AND TROPICAL MAMMALS AND BIRDS, The Biological Bulletin, vol.99, issue.2, pp.237-258, 1950.
DOI : 10.2307/1538741

E. Dumonteil, H. Barré, J. L. Rouanet, M. Diarra, and J. Bouvier, Dual core and shell temperature regulation during sea acclimatization in Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua), Am. J. Physiol, vol.266, pp.1319-1326, 1994.

G. L. Kooyman, R. W. Davis, J. P. Croxall, C. , and D. P. , Diving depths and energy requirements of king penguins, Science, vol.217, issue.4561, pp.726-727, 1982.
DOI : 10.1126/science.7100916

B. M. Culik, K. Pütz, R. P. Wilson, D. Allers, J. Lage et al., Diving energetics in king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), J. Exp. Biol, vol.199, pp.973-983, 1996.

G. Froget, P. J. Butler, A. J. Woakes, A. Fahlman, G. Kuntz et al., Heart rate and energetics of free-ranging king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.207, issue.22, pp.3917-3926, 2004.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.01232

R. Groscolas, V. Viera, N. Guerin, Y. Handrich, C. et al., Heart rate as a predictor of energy expenditure in undisturbed fasting and incubating penguins, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.213, issue.1, pp.153-160, 2010.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.033720

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00444107

Y. Handrich, R. M. Bevan, J. B. Charrassin, P. J. Butler, K. Pütz et al., Hypothermia in foraging king penguins, Nature, vol.388, issue.6637, pp.64-67, 1997.
DOI : 10.1038/40392

A. Schmidt, F. Alard, and Y. Handrich, Changes in body temperatures in king penguins at sea: the result of fine adjustments in peripheral heat loss?, AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.291, issue.3, pp.608-618, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.00826.2005

R. Hissa, Controlling mechanisms in avian temperature regulation: a review, Acta Physiol. Scand, vol.132, pp.1-148, 1988.

C. Duchamp and H. Barré, Skeletal muscle as the major site of nonshivering thermogenesis in cold-acclimated ducklings, Am. J. Physiol, vol.265, pp.1076-1083, 1993.

P. J. Schaeffer, J. J. Villarin, D. J. Pierotti, D. P. Kelly, and S. L. Lindstedt, Cost of transport is increased after cold exposure in Monodelphis domestica: training for inefficiency, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.208, issue.16, pp.3159-3167, 2005.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.01703

P. J. Schaeffer, J. F. Hokanson, D. J. Wells, and S. L. Lindstedt, Cold exposure increases runningVo 2max and cost of transport in goats, Am. J. Physiol, vol.280, pp.42-47, 2001.

S. Raimbault, S. Dridi, F. Denjean, J. Lachuer, E. Couplan et al., An uncoupling protein homologue putatively involved in facultative muscle thermogenesis in birds, Biochem, 2001.

B. Rey, D. Roussel, C. Romestaing, M. Belouze, J. L. Rouanet et al., Up-regulation of avian uncoupling protein in cold-acclimated and hyperthyroid ducklings prevents reactive oxygen species production by skeletal muscle mitochondria, BMC Physiology, vol.10, issue.1, p.5, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/1472-6793-10-5

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539469

D. A. Talbot, N. Hanuise, B. Rey, J. L. Rouanet, C. Duchamp et al., Superoxide activates a GDP-sensitive proton conductance in skeletal muscle mitochondria from king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.312, issue.4, pp.983-98, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.11.022

I. Walter and F. Seebacher, Endothermy in birds: underlying molecular mechanisms, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.212, issue.15, pp.2328-2336, 2009.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.029009

L. Teulier, J. L. Rouanet, D. Letexier, C. Romestaing, M. Belouze et al., Cold-acclimation-induced non-shivering thermogenesis in birds is associated with upregulation of avian UCP but not with innate uncoupling or altered ATP efficiency, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.213, issue.14, pp.2476-2482, 2010.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.043489

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539497

E. L. Seifert, V. Bézaire, C. Estey, and M. E. Harper, Essential Role for Uncoupling Protein-3 in Mitochondrial Adaptation to Fasting but Not in Fatty Acid Oxidation or Fatty Acid Anion Export, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.283, issue.37, pp.25124-25131, 2008.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M803871200

J. M. Weber, The physiology of long-distance migration: extending the limits of endurance metabolism, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.212, issue.5, pp.593-597, 2009.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.015024

R. Scholz, U. Schwabe, and S. Soboll, Influence of fatty acids on energy metabolism. 1. Stimulation of oxygen consumption, ketogenesis and CO2 production following addition of octanoate and oleate in perfused rat liver, European Journal of Biochemistry, vol.256, issue.1, pp.223-230, 1984.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.bi.50.070181.001025

D. Roussel, J. F. Dumas, G. Simard, Y. Malthièry, and P. Ritz, Kinetics and control of oxidative phosphorylation in rat liver mitochondria after dexamethasone treatment, Biochemical Journal, vol.382, issue.2, pp.491-499, 2004.
DOI : 10.1042/BJ20040696

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00069604

J. St-pierre, J. A. Buckinghan, S. J. Roebuck, and M. D. Brand, Topology of Superoxide Production from Different Sites in the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.277, issue.47, pp.44784-44790, 2002.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M207217200

B. Cannon and J. Nedergaard, Brown Adipose Tissue: Function and Physiological Significance, Physiological Reviews, vol.84, issue.1, pp.277-359, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00015.2003

F. Chainier, Effets des acides gras alimentaires sur l'énergétique mitochondriale du caneton de Barbarie. Comparaison avec l'effet de l'acclimatation au froid, 2000.

F. Chainier, D. Roussel, B. Georges, R. Meister, J. L. Rouanet et al., Cold acclimation or grapeseed oil feeding affects phospholipid composition and mitochondrial function in duckling skeletal muscle, Lipids, vol.10, issue.10, pp.1099-106, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/s11745-000-0625-8

J. B. Charrassin and C. A. Bost, Utilisation of the oceanic habitat by king penguins over the annual cycle, Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol.221, pp.285-297, 2001.
DOI : 10.3354/meps221285

Y. Cherel, V. Ridoux, and P. G. Rodhouse, Fish and squid in the diet of king penguin chicks, Aptenodytes patagonicus, during winter at sub-antarctic Crozet Islands, Marine Biology, vol.106, issue.4, pp.559-570, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00351323

Y. Cherel, J. Stahl, L. Maho, and Y. , Ecology and physiology of fasting in king penguin chicks, The Auk, vol.104, pp.254-262, 1987.

Y. Cherel, C. Verdon, and V. Ridoux, Seasonal importance of oceanic myctophids in king penguin diet at Crozet Islands, Polar Biology, vol.13, issue.5, pp.355-357, 1993.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00238362

A. Chiaradia and I. C. Nisbet, Plasticity in parental provisioning and chick growth in Little Penguins Eudyptula minor in years of high and low breeding success, Ardea, vol.94, pp.257-270, 2006.

I. Choi, R. E. Ricklefs, and R. E. Shea, Skeletal Muscle Growth, Enzyme Activities, and the Development of Thermogenesis: A Comparison between Altricial and Precocial Birds, Physiological Zoology, vol.66, issue.4, pp.455-473, 1993.
DOI : 10.1086/physzool.66.4.30163803

A. Collin, S. Cassy, J. Buyse, E. Decuypere, and M. Damon, Potential involvement of mammalian and avian uncoupling proteins in the thermogenic effect of thyroid hormones, Domestic Animal Endocrinology, vol.29, issue.1, pp.78-87, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.domaniend.2005.02.007

A. Collin, Q. Swennen, S. Skiba-cassy, J. Buyse, P. Chartrin et al., Regulation of fatty acid oxidation in chicken (Gallus gallus): Interactions between genotype and diet composition, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, vol.153, issue.2, pp.171-178, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cbpb.2009.02.012

A. Collin, M. Taouis, J. Buyse, N. B. Ifuta, V. M. Darras et al., Thyroid status, but not insulin status, affects expression of avian uncoupling protein mRNA in chicken, American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology And Metabolism, vol.284, issue.4, pp.771-778, 2003.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpendo.00478.2002

C. E. Cooper, N. B. Vollaard, T. Choueiri, and M. T. Wilson, Exercise, free radicals and oxidative stress, Biochemical Society Transactions, vol.30, issue.2, pp.280-285, 2002.
DOI : 10.1042/bst0300280

J. P. Costanzo, R. E. Lee, . Jr, and P. H. Lortz, Physiological responses of freezetolerant and -intolerant frogs: clues to evolution of anuran freeze tolerance, Am J Physiol, vol.265, pp.721-726, 1993.

F. Criscuolo, M. Gonzalez-barroso-mdel, L. Maho, Y. Ricquier, D. Bouillaud et al., Avian uncoupling protein expressed in yeast mitochondria prevents endogenous free radical damage, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.14, issue.1414, pp.803-813, 2005.
DOI : 10.1098/rspb.1999.0597

C. Dawson, J. F. Vincent, G. Jeronimidis, G. Rice, and P. Forshaw, Heat Transfer through Penguin Feathers, Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol.199, issue.3, pp.291-295, 1999.
DOI : 10.1006/jtbi.1999.0959

R. D. Dawson, C. C. Lawrie, O. 'brien, and E. L. , The importance of microclimate variation in determining size, growth and survival of avian offspring: experimental evidence from a cavity nesting passerine, Oecologia, vol.60, issue.3, pp.499-507, 2005.
DOI : 10.1007/s00442-005-0075-7

F. Depocas and J. S. Hart, Use of the pauling oxygen analyser for measurement of oxygen consumption of animals in open-circuit systems and in a short-lag, closed-circuit apparatus, J Appl Physiol, vol.10, pp.388-392, 1957.

S. Descamps, M. Gauthier-clerc, J. Gendner, L. Maho, and Y. , The annual breeding cycle of unbanded king penguins Aptenodytes patagonicus on Possession Island, 2002.

S. Dridi, S. Temim, M. Derouet, S. Tesseraud, and M. Taouis, Acute cold??? and chronic heat???exposure upregulate hepatic leptin and muscle uncoupling protein (UCP) gene expression in broiler chickens, Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological Genetics and Physiology, vol.372, issue.7, pp.381-389, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/jez.461

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00413883

C. Duchamp, Demonstration d'une thermogenèse sans frisson d'origine musculaire chez l'oiseau -étude chez le caneton de Barbarie et le poussin de manchot royal, 1990.

C. Duchamp and H. Barre, Skeletal muscle as the major site of nonshivering thermogenesis in cold-acclimated ducklings, Am J Physiol, vol.265, pp.1076-83, 1993.

C. Duchamp, H. Barre, J. L. Rouanet, A. Lanni, F. Cohen-adad et al., Nonshivering thermogenesis in king penguin chicks. I. Role of skeletal muscle, 1991.

C. Duchamp, J. Chatonnet, A. Dittmar, and H. Barre, Increased role of skeletal muscle in the calorigenic response to glucagon of cold-acclimated ducklings, Am J Physiol, vol.265, pp.1084-91, 1993.

C. Duchamp, F. Cohen-adad, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barre, Histochemical arguments for muscular non-shivering thermogenesis in muscovy ducklings., The Journal of Physiology, vol.457, issue.1, pp.27-45, 1992.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019363

C. Duchamp, F. Marmonier, F. Denjean, J. Lachuer, T. P. Eldershaw et al., Regulatory, cellular and molecular aspects of avian muscle nonshivering thermogenesis, Ornis Fennica, vol.76, pp.151-165, 1999.

C. Duchamp, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barre, Ontogeny of thermoregulatory mechanisms in king penguin chicks (Aptenodytes patagonicus), Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, vol.131, issue.4, pp.765-73, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00014-4

E. Dumonteil, H. Barre, and G. Meissner, Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase and ryanodine receptor in cold-acclimated ducklings and thermogenesis, Am J Physiol, vol.265, pp.507-520, 1993.

E. Dumonteil, H. Barre, and G. Meissner, Effects of palmitoyl carnitine and related metabolites on the avian Ca(2+)-ATPase and Ca2+ release channel., The Journal of Physiology, vol.479, issue.1, pp.29-39, 1994.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1994.sp020275

E. H. Dunn, On the variability in energy allocation of nestling birds, The Auk, vol.97, pp.19-27, 1980.

K. S. Echtay, Mitochondrial uncoupling proteins--what is their physiological role? Free Radic, Biol Med, vol.43, pp.1351-71, 2007.

K. S. Echtay, D. Roussel, J. St-pierre, M. B. Jekabsons, S. Cadenas et al., Superoxide activates mitochondrial uncoupling proteins, Nature, vol.415, issue.6867, pp.96-105, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/415096a

R. Eckert, D. Randall, W. W. Burggren, and K. French, Animal physiology : Mechanisms and adaptations, 1999.

M. S. El-halawani, W. O. Wilson, and R. E. Burger, Cold-Acclimation and the Role of Catecholamines in Body Temperature Regulation in Male Leghorns, Poultry Science, vol.49, issue.3, pp.621-632, 1971.
DOI : 10.3382/ps.0490621

S. Enerback, Brown adipose tissue in humans, International Journal of Obesity, vol.64, pp.43-49, 2010.
DOI : 10.1210/en.2009-0667

A. Fahlman, A. Schmidt, Y. Handrich, A. J. Woakes, and P. J. Butler, Metabolism and thermoregulation during fasting in king penguins, Aptenodytes patagonicus, in air and water, AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.289, issue.3, pp.670-679, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.00130.2005

Y. Filali-zegzouti, H. Abdelmelek, J. L. Rouanet, J. M. Cottet-emard, J. M. Pequignot et al., Involvement of the catecholaminergic system in glucagon-induced thermogenesis in Muscovy ducklings ( Cairina moschata ), Pfl???gers Archiv European Journal of Physiology, vol.441, issue.2-3, pp.275-80, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/s004240000409

C. Fleury, M. Neverova, S. Collins, S. Raimbault, O. Champigny et al., Uncoupling protein-2: a novel gene linked to obesity and hyperinsulinemia, Nature Genetics, vol.281, issue.3, pp.269-72, 1997.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199508103330605

G. W. Gabrielsen, F. Mehlum, and H. E. Karlsen, Thermoregulation in four species of arctic seabirds, Journal of Comparative Physiology B, vol.77, issue.6, pp.703-708, 1988.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00691000

B. George, La gestion des réserves lipidiques chez l'oiseau développant une thermogenèse sans frisson, 1996.

F. Goglia and V. P. Skulachev, A function for novel uncoupling proteins: antioxidant defense of mitochondrial matrix by translocating fatty acid peroxides from the inner to the outer membrane leaflet, The FASEB Journal, vol.17, issue.12, pp.1585-91, 2003.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.03-0159hyp

V. Golozoubova, E. Hohtola, A. Matthias, A. Jacobsson, B. Cannon et al., Only UCP1 can mediate adaptive nonshivering thermogenesis in the cold, The FASEB Journal, vol.15, pp.2048-50, 2001.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.00-0536fje

J. R. Hazel, Thermal Adaptation in Biological Membranes: Is Homeoviscous Adaptation the Explanation?, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.57, issue.1, pp.19-42, 1995.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.000315

J. Himms-hagen and M. E. Harper, Physiological role of UCP3 may be export of fatty acids from mitochondria when fatty acid oxidation predominates: an hypothesis, Exp Biol Med, vol.226, pp.78-84, 2001.

R. Hissa, Controlling mechanisms in avian temperature regulation: a review, Acta Physiol Scand, vol.132, pp.1-148, 1988.

E. Hohtola, Shivering thermogenesis in birds and mammals, Life in the Cold: Evolution, Mechanisms, Adaptation, and Application, 2004.

C. Hourton-cabassa, R. Matos, A. Zachowski, A. Moreau, and F. , The plant uncoupling protein homologues: a new family of energy-dissipating proteins in plant mitochondria, Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, vol.42, issue.4, pp.283-90, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.plaphy.2004.01.007

L. Hughes, Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent?, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.15, issue.2, pp.56-61, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01764-4

L. Jansky, NON-SHIVERING THERMOGENESIS AND ITS THERMOREGULATORY SIGNIFICANCE, Biological Reviews, vol.296, issue.Suppl. 274, pp.85-132, 1973.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1973.tb01115.x

M. Jastroch, S. Wuertz, W. Kloas, and M. Klingenspor, Uncoupling protein 1 in fish uncovers an ancient evolutionary history of mammalian nonshivering thermogenesis, Physiological Genomics, vol.22, issue.2, pp.150-156, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00070.2005

L. Jenni and S. Jenni-eiermann, Fuel Supply and Metabolic Constraints in Migrating Birds, Journal of Avian Biology, vol.29, issue.4, pp.521-528, 1998.
DOI : 10.2307/3677171

D. W. Johnston, The absence of brown adipose tissue in birds, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, vol.40, issue.4, pp.1107-1115, 1971.
DOI : 10.1016/0300-9629(71)90298-2

R. Joubert, Rôles et régulations de la protéine découplante aviaire dans le métabolisme mitochondrial de l'oiseau, Sciences de la vie, 2009.

R. Joubert, S. Metayer-coustard, Q. Swennen, V. Sibut, S. Crochet et al., The beta-adrenergic system is involved in the regulation of the expression of avian uncoupling protein in the chicken, Domestic Animal Endocrinology, vol.38, issue.2, pp.115-140, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.domaniend.2009.08.002

M. Klingenspor, T. Fromme, D. A. Hughes, . Jr, L. Manzke et al., An ancient look at UCP1, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics, vol.1777, issue.7-8, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbabio.2008.03.006

S. Krauss, C. Y. Zhang, and B. B. Lowell, The mitochondrial uncoupling-protein homologues, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, vol.12, issue.3, pp.248-61, 2005.
DOI : 10.1038/nrm1592

S. Kumar and S. B. Hedges, A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution, Nature, vol.392, pp.917-937, 1998.

A. Lanni, M. Moreno, A. Lombardi, and F. Goglia, Thyroid hormone and uncoupling proteins, FEBS Letters, vol.532, issue.1-3, pp.5-10, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(03)00320-X

A. M. Leroi, A. F. Bennett, and R. E. Lenski, Temperature acclimation and competitive fitness: an experimental test of the beneficial acclimation assumption., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.91, issue.5, pp.1917-1938, 1994.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.91.5.1917

H. Liang and W. F. Ward, PGC-1??: a key regulator of energy metabolism, AJP: Advances in Physiology Education, vol.30, issue.4, pp.145-51, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/advan.00052.2006

W. Mao, X. X. Yu, A. Zhong, W. Li, J. Brush et al., UCP4, a novel brain-specific mitochondrial protein that reduces membrane potential in mammalian cells, FEBS Letters, vol.378, issue.3, pp.326-356, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)01713-X

K. Marjoniemi, Thermogenic mechanisms during the development of endothermy in juvenile birds, Biology, 2001.

K. Marjoniemi and E. Hohtola, Shivering Thermogenesis in Leg and Breast Muscles of Galliform Chicks and Nestlings of the Domestic Pigeon, Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, vol.72, issue.4, pp.484-92, 1999.
DOI : 10.1086/316676

N. V. Mezentseva, J. S. Kumaratilake, and S. A. Newman, The brown adipocyte differentiation pathway in birds: An evolutionary road not taken, BMC Biology, vol.6, issue.1, p.17, 2008.
DOI : 10.1186/1741-7007-6-17

S. Miwa and M. D. Brand, Mitochondrial matrix reactive oxygen species production is very sensitive to mild uncoupling, Biochemical Society Transactions, vol.31, issue.6, pp.1300-1301, 2003.
DOI : 10.1042/bst0311300

A. Montaron, J. L. Rouanet, and H. Barre, Inhibition of shivering thermogenesis by centrally applied glucagon in muscovy ducklings, Brain Research, vol.702, issue.1-2, pp.49-54, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(95)00961-9

A. Mujahid, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, Acute Heat Stress Induces Oxidative Stress and Decreases Adaptation in Young White Leghorn Cockerels by Downregulation of Avian Uncoupling Protein, Poultry Science, vol.86, issue.2, pp.364-71, 2007.
DOI : 10.1093/ps/86.2.364

A. Mujahid, K. Sato, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, Acute heat stress stimulates mitochondrial superoxide production in broiler skeletal muscle, possibly via downregulation of uncoupling protein content, Poultry Science, vol.85, issue.7, pp.1259-65, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/ps/85.7.1259

A. Negre-salvayre, C. Hirtz, G. Carrera, R. Cazenave, M. Troly et al., A role for uncoupling protein-2 as a regulator of mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide generation, Faseb J, vol.11, pp.809-824, 1997.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00393579

M. Nichelmann and B. Tzschentke, Ontogeny of thermoregulation in precocial birds, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, vol.131, issue.4, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00013-2

S. R. Noren, T. M. Williams, D. A. Pabst, W. A. Mclellan, and J. L. Dearolf, The development of diving in marine endotherms: preparing the skeletal muscles of dolphins, penguins, and seals for activity during submergence, Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, vol.171, issue.2, pp.127-161, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s003600000161

J. Olson, The Ontogeny of Shivering Thermogenesis in the Red-Winged Blackbird (Agelaius Phoeniceus), J Exp Biol, vol.191, pp.59-88, 1994.

M. Ozaki, S. Haga, H. Q. Zhang, K. Irani, and S. Suzuki, Inhibition of hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced oxidative stress in HGF-stimulated antiapoptotic signaling: role of PI3-K and Akt kinase upon rac1, Cell Death and Differentiation, vol.10, issue.5, pp.508-523, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401172

C. Pecqueur, M. C. Alves-guerra, C. Gelly, C. Levi-meyrueis, E. Couplan et al., Uncoupling Protein 2, in Vivo Distribution, Induction upon Oxidative Stress, and Evidence for Translational Regulation, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.276, issue.12, pp.8705-8717, 2001.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M006938200

R. K. Porter, A. J. Hulbert, and M. D. Brand, Allometry of mitochondrial proton leak: influence of membrane surface area and fatty acid composition, Am J Physiol, vol.271, pp.1550-60, 1996.

K. Pütz, SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY IN THE FORAGING AREAS OF BREEDING KING PENGUINS, The Condor, vol.104, issue.3, pp.528-538, 2002.
DOI : 10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0528:SATVIT]2.0.CO;2

M. Raccurt, F. Baudimont, J. Tirard, B. Rey, E. Moureaux et al., Growing in Antarctica, a challenge for white adipose tissue development in Adelie penguin chicks (Pygoscelis adeliae), AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.295, issue.5, pp.1671-1680, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.90371.2008

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428236

S. Raimbault, S. Dridi, F. Denjean, J. Lachuer, E. Couplan et al., An uncoupling protein homologue putatively involved in facultative muscle thermogenesis in birds, Biochemical Journal, vol.353, issue.3, pp.441-445, 2001.
DOI : 10.1042/bj3530441

B. Rey, Implication de la protéine découplante aviaire dans l'ontogenèse des mécanismes thermogènes et/ou anti-radicalaires -Etude expérimentale sur le manchot Royal et le caneton de Barbarie, 2008.

J. Duchamp and C. , Long-term fasting decreases mitochondrial avian UCP-mediated oxygen consumption in hypometabolic king penguins, Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, vol.295, pp.92-100, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428120

B. Sibille, S. Servais, and C. Duchamp, Up-regulation of avian uncoupling protein in coldacclimated and hyperthyroid ducklings prevents reactive oxygen species production by skeletal muscle mitochondria, BMC Physiol, vol.10, p.5, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539469

B. Rey, B. Sibille, C. Romestaing, M. Belouze, D. Letexier et al., Reptilian uncoupling protein: functionality and expression in sub-zero temperatures, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.211, issue.9, pp.1456-62, 2008.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.012328

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428094

B. Rey, M. Spee, M. Belouze, A. Girard, J. Prost et al., Oxygen recovery up-regulates avian UCP and ANT in newly hatched ducklings, Journal of Comparative Physiology B, vol.217, issue.3, pp.239-285, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s00360-009-0409-6

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539442

D. Ricquier and J. C. Kader, Mitochondrial protein alteration in active brown fat: A sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic study, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.73, issue.3, pp.577-83, 1976.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-291X(76)90849-4

H. Rintamäki, S. Saarela, A. Marjakangas, and R. Hissa, Summer and Winter Temperature Regulation in the Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix, Physiological Zoology, vol.56, issue.2, pp.152-159, 1983.
DOI : 10.1086/physzool.56.2.30156048

J. L. Rouanet, Arguments morphologiques et fonctionnels en faveur d'une participation du muscle squelettique à la thermogenèse sans frisson chez le caneton acclimaté au froid, 1983.

D. Roussel, Controle du couplage énergétique mitochondrial par les acides gras - Implication dans la thermogenèse sans frisson musculaire aviaire, 1999.

D. Roussel, J. L. Rouanet, C. Duchamp, and H. Barre, Effects of cold acclimation and palmitate on energy coupling in duckling skeletal muscle mitochondria, FEBS Letters, vol.1183, issue.3, pp.258-62, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)01382-9

S. Saarela, J. S. Keith, E. Hohtola, and P. Trayhurn, Is the "mammalian" brown fatspecific mitochondrial uncoupling protein present in adipose tissues of birds?, Comp Biochem Physiol B, vol.100, pp.45-54, 1991.

S. Saarela and O. Vakkuri, Photoperiod-induced changes in temperature-metabolism curve, shivering threshold and body temperature in the pigeon, Experientia, vol.100, issue.3, pp.373-378, 1982.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01949401

D. Sanchis, C. Fleury, N. Chomiki, M. Goubern, Q. Huang et al., BMCP1, a Novel Mitochondrial Carrier with High Expression in the Central Nervous System of Humans and Rodents, and Respiration Uncoupling Activity in Recombinant Yeast, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.273, issue.51, pp.34611-34616, 1998.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.273.51.34611

H. Schekkerman, I. Tulp, T. Piersma, and G. H. Visser, Mechanisms promoting higher growth rate in arctic than in temperate shorebirds, Oecologia, vol.134, issue.3, pp.332-374, 2003.
DOI : 10.1007/s00442-002-1124-0

K. Schmidt-nielsen, Animal Physiology., Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, vol.89, issue.5, 1990.
DOI : 10.2307/2482946

A. Schmidt, F. Alard, and Y. Handrich, Changes in body temperatures in king penguins at sea: the result of fine adjustments in peripheral heat loss?, AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.291, issue.3, pp.608-626, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.00826.2005

P. Scholander, R. Hock, V. Walters, F. Johnson, and L. Irving, HEAT REGULATION IN SOME ARCTIC AND TROPICAL MAMMALS AND BIRDS, The Biological Bulletin, vol.99, issue.2, 1950.
DOI : 10.2307/1538741

P. Schrauwen, J. Hoeks, and M. K. Hesselink, Putative function and physiological relevance of the mitochondrial uncoupling protein-3: Involvement in fatty acid metabolism?, Progress in Lipid Research, vol.45, issue.1, pp.17-41, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.plipres.2005.11.001

P. Schrauwen, W. H. Saris, and M. K. Hesselink, An alternative function for human uncoupling protein 3: protection of mitochondria against accumulation of nonesterified fatty acids inside the mitochondrial matrix, The FASEB Journal, vol.15, issue.13, pp.2497-502, 2001.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.01-0400hyp

T. S. Schwartz, S. Murray, and F. Seebacher, Novel reptilian uncoupling proteins: molecular evolution and gene expression during cold acclimation, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.5, issue.3, pp.979-85, 2008.
DOI : 10.1006/geno.2001.6473

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2599945

H. Shirihai, A complete guide to Antarctic wildlife. The birds and marine mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean, 2007.

J. E. Silva, Thermogenic Mechanisms and Their Hormonal Regulation, Physiological Reviews, vol.86, issue.2, pp.435-64, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00009.2005

B. J. Sinclair, A. Addo-bediako, and S. L. Chown, Climatic variability and the evolution of insect freeze tolerance, Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol.65, issue.2, pp.181-95, 2003.
DOI : 10.1006/cryo.2000.2289

S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson, The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes, Science, vol.175, issue.4023, pp.720-751, 1972.
DOI : 10.1126/science.175.4023.720

V. P. Skulachev and S. P. Maslov, The role of nonphosphorylating oxidation in temperature regulation, Biochemistry (Moscow), vol.25, pp.1058-1064, 1960.

I. M. Sokolova and E. P. Sokolov, Evolution of mitochondrial uncoupling proteins: novel invertebrate UCP homologues suggest early evolutionary divergence of the UCP family, FEBS Letters, vol.11, issue.2, pp.313-320, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.febslet.2004.11.103

J. St-pierre, J. A. Buckingham, S. J. Roebuck, and M. D. Brand, Topology of Superoxide Production from Different Sites in the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.277, issue.47, pp.44784-90, 2002.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M207217200

F. S. Tortosa and F. Castro, Development of thermoregulatory ability during ontogeny in the white stork Ciconia ciconia, Ardeola, vol.50, pp.39-45, 2003.

M. Toyomizu, M. Ueda, S. Sato, Y. Seki, K. Sato et al., Cold-induced mitochondrial uncoupling and expression of chicken UCP and ANT mRNA in chicken skeletal muscle, FEBS Letters, vol.85, issue.2-3, pp.313-321, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03395-1

M. Ueda, K. Watanabe, K. Sato, Y. Akiba, and M. Toyomizu, ANT mRNAs in the skeletal muscles of cold-exposed chickens, FEBS Letters, vol.271, issue.1, pp.11-18, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.febslet.2004.11.039

E. Vaillancourt and J. M. Weber, Lipid mobilization of long-distance migrant birds in vivo: the high lipolytic rate of ruff sandpipers is not stimulated during shivering, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.210, issue.7, pp.1161-1170, 2007.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.003012

S. Lowell, B. B. Bicudo, J. E. Bianco, and A. C. , Cloning and functional characterization of an uncoupling protein homolog in hummingbirds, Physiol Genomics, vol.5, pp.137-182, 2001.

A. Vidal-puig, G. Solanes, D. Grujic, J. S. Flier, and B. B. Lowell, UCP3: An Uncoupling Protein Homologue Expressed Preferentially and Abundantly in Skeletal Muscle and Brown Adipose Tissue, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.235, issue.1, pp.79-82, 1997.
DOI : 10.1006/bbrc.1997.6740

K. A. Virtanen, M. E. Lidell, J. Orava, M. Heglind, R. Westergren et al., Functional Brown Adipose Tissue in Healthy Adults, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.360, issue.15, pp.1518-1543, 2009.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa0808949

G. H. Visser and R. E. Ricklefs, Relationship between Body Composition and Homeothermy in Neonates of Precocial and Semiprecocial Birds, The Auk, vol.112, issue.1, pp.192-200, 1995.
DOI : 10.2307/4088778

Y. Voituron, N. Mouquet, C. Demazancourt, and J. Clobert, To freeze or not to freeze? an evolutionary perspective on the cold hardiness strategies of overwintering ectotherms, American Naturalist, vol.160, pp.255-270, 2002.

Y. Voituron, J. M. Storey, C. Grenot, and K. B. Storey, Freezing survival, body ice content and blood composition of the freeze tolerant European common lizard, Lacerta vivipara, Journal of Comparative Physiology B, vol.172, pp.71-76, 2002.

G. R. Walther, E. Post, P. Convey, A. Menzel, C. Parmesan et al., Ecological responses to recent climate change, Nature, vol.64, issue.2, pp.389-95, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/416389a

W. W. Weathers, K. L. Gearhart, and P. J. Hodum, Thermoregulation in Antarctic fulmarine petrels, Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, vol.170, issue.8, pp.561-572, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/s003600000134

J. M. Weber, The physiology of long-distance migration: extending the limits of endurance metabolism, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol.212, issue.5, pp.593-597, 2009.
DOI : 10.1242/jeb.015024

M. J. West-eberhard, Phenotypic Plasticity and the Origins of Diversity, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.20, issue.1, pp.249-278, 1989.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001341

J. B. Williams and B. I. Tieleman, Physiological Ecology and Behavior of Desert Birds, Current Ornithology, pp.299-353, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4615-1211-0_6

P. Willmer, G. Stone, and I. Johnston, Environmental physiology of animals, 2000.

R. P. Wilson, K. Hustler, P. G. Ryan, A. E. Burger, and E. C. Nöldeke, Diving Birds in Cold Water: Do Archimedes and Boyle Determine Energetic Costs?, The American Naturalist, vol.140, issue.2, pp.179-200, 1992.
DOI : 10.1086/285409

R. S. Wilson and C. E. Franklin, Testing the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.17, issue.2, pp.66-70, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02384-9

A. J. Zera and L. G. Harshman, The Physiology of Life History Trade-Offs in Animals, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.32, issue.1, 2001.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114006