C. Inserm, Plateforme d'Investigation Technologique 21079 Dijon cedex Corresponding author: Christine Marie, e-mail: chmarie@u-bourgogne.fr, phone and fax number, pp.33-36

S. Amatachaya, T. Thaweewannakij, J. Adirek-udomrat, and W. Siritaratiwat, Factors Related to Obstacle Crossing in Independent Ambulatory Patients With Spinal Cord Injury, The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, vol.73, issue.8, pp.144-149, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/gerona/50A.4.M211

G. P. Austin, G. E. Garrett, and R. W. Bohannon, Kinematic analysis of obstacle clearance during locomotion, Gait & Posture, vol.10, issue.2, pp.109-120, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0966-6362(99)00022-3

M. H. Canu and C. Garnier, A 3D analysis of fore- and hindlimb motion during overground and ladder walking: Comparison of control and unloaded rats, Experimental Neurology, vol.218, issue.1, pp.98-108, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.04.009

K. A. Clarke and A. J. Parker, A quantitative study of normal locomotion in the rat, Physiology & Behavior, vol.38, issue.3, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/0031-9384(86)90105-8

J. Cruz, A. C. Mauricio, S. Geuna, and A. S. Varejao, A comparison of two-dimensional and three-dimensional techniques for the determination of hindlimb kinematics during treadmill locomotion in rats following spinal cord injury, J Neurosci Methods, vol.173, pp.193-200, 2008.

T. Drew, W. Jiang, and W. Widajewicz, Contributions of the motor cortex to the control of the hindlimbs during locomotion in the cat, Brain Research Reviews, vol.40, issue.1-3, pp.178-191, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00200-X

V. M. Filipe, J. E. Pereira, L. M. Costa, A. C. Mauricio, P. A. Couto et al., Effect of skin movement on the analysis of hindlimb kinematics during treadmill locomotion in rats, Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol.153, issue.1, pp.55-61, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2005.10.006

K. M. Friel, T. Drew, and J. H. Martin, Differential Activity-Dependent Development of Corticospinal Control of Movement and Final Limb Position During Visually Guided Locomotion, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.97, issue.5, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00750.2006

R. Grasso, L. Bianchi, and F. Lacquaniti, Motor patterns for human gait: backward versus forward locomotion, J Neurophysiol, vol.80, pp.1868-1885, 1998.

R. Grasso, M. Zago, and F. Lacquaniti, Interactions between posture and locomotion: motor patterns in humans walking with bent posture versus erect posture, J Neurophysiol, vol.83, pp.288-300, 2000.

F. P. Hamers, G. C. Koopmans, and E. A. Joosten, CatWalk-Assisted Gait Analysis in the Assessment of Spinal Cord Injury, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.23, issue.3-4, pp.537-548, 2006.
DOI : 10.1089/neu.2006.23.537

T. J. Harrison, The growth of the pelvis in the rat; a mensural and morphological study, 1958.

R. M. Ichiyama, Y. P. Gerasimenko, H. Zhong, R. R. Roy, and V. R. Edgerton, Hindlimb stepping movements in complete spinal rats induced by epidural spinal cord stimulation, Neuroscience Letters, vol.383, issue.3, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.049

D. A. Mcvea, A. J. Taylor, and K. G. Pearson, Long-Lasting Working Memories of Obstacles Established by Foreleg Stepping in Walking Cats Require Area 5 of the Posterior Parietal Cortex, Journal of Neuroscience, vol.29, issue.29, pp.9396-9404, 2009.
DOI : 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0746-09.2009

G. A. Metz, D. Merkler, V. Dietz, M. E. Schwab, and K. Fouad, Efficient testing of motor function in spinal cord injured rats, Brain Research, vol.883, issue.2, pp.165-177, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02778-5

G. A. Metz and I. Q. Whishaw, Cortical and subcortical lesions impair skilled walking in the ladder rung walking test: a new task to evaluate fore- and hindlimb stepping, placing, and co-ordination, Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol.115, issue.2, pp.169-179, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0270(02)00012-2

G. A. Metz and I. Q. Whishaw, The Ladder Rung Walking Task: A Scoring System and its Practical Application., Journal of Visualized Experiments, issue.28, 2009.
DOI : 10.3791/1204

J. Michel, D. Benninger, V. Dietz, and H. J. Van-hedel, Obstacle stepping in patients with Parkinson???s disease, Journal of Neurology, vol.86, issue.3, pp.457-463, 2009.
DOI : 10.1007/s00415-009-0114-0

E. Millerot-serrurot, A. Chausset, C. Mossiat, A. Prigent-tessier, N. Bertrand et al., Effect of early decrease in the lesion size on late brain tissue loss, synaptophysin expression and functionality after a focal brain lesion in rats, Neurochemistry International, vol.50, issue.2, pp.328-335, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuint.2006.08.016

E. I. Miklyaeva, D. J. Martens, and I. Q. Whishaw, Impairments and compensatory adjustments in spontaneous movement after unilateral dopamine depletion in rats, Brain Research, vol.681, issue.1-2, pp.23-40, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(95)00277-W

S. M. Morton, G. S. Dordevic, and A. J. Bastian, Cerebellar damage produces contextdependent deficits in control of leg dynamics during obstacle avoidance, Exp Brain Res, vol.156, pp.149-163, 2004.

L. M. Geuna, S. Mauricio, A. C. Varejao, and A. S. , A comparison analysis of hindlimb kinematics during overground and treadmill locomotion in rats, Behav Brain Res, vol.172, pp.212-218, 2006.

O. Perrot, D. Laroche, T. Pozzo, and C. Marie, Quantitative Assessment of Stereotyped and Challenged Locomotion after Lesion of the Striatum: A 3D Kinematic Study in Rats, PLoS ONE, vol.20, issue.2, p.7616, 2009.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0007616.g007

N. P. Poulton and G. D. Muir, Treadmill training ameliorates dopamine loss but not behavioral deficits in hemi-Parkinsonian rats, Experimental Neurology, vol.193, issue.1, pp.181-197, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.12.006

A. Raman, Appositional Growth Rate in Rat Bones Using the Tetracycline Labelling Method, Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, vol.48, issue.2, pp.193-197, 1969.
DOI : 10.3109/17453676908989498

C. M. Said, P. A. Goldie, A. E. Patla, and W. A. Sparrow, Effect of stroke on step characteristics of obstacle crossing, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol.82, issue.12, pp.1712-1719, 2001.
DOI : 10.1053/apmr.2001.26247

A. K. Thota, S. C. Watson, E. Knapp, B. Thompson, and R. Jung, Neuromechanical Control of Locomotion in the Rat, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.22, issue.4, pp.442-465, 2005.
DOI : 10.1089/neu.2005.22.442

I. Q. Whishaw, L. A. Sacrey, and B. Gorny, Hind limb stepping over obstacles in the horse guided by place-object memory, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.198, issue.2, pp.372-379, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.023

I. Beloozerova and M. Sirota, The role of the motor cortex in the control of accuracy of locomotor movements in the cat., The Journal of Physiology, vol.461, issue.1, pp.1-25, 1993.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019498

B. Bilney, M. Morris, A. Churchyard, E. Chiu, and N. Georgiou-karistianis, Evidence for a disorder of locomotor timing in Huntington's disease, Movement Disorders, vol.39, issue.Pt 2, pp.51-57, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/mds.20294

M. Boquillon, J. Boquillon, and J. Bralet, Photochemically induced, graded cerebral infarction in the mouse by laser irradiation evolution of brain edema, Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods, vol.27, issue.1, pp.1-6, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/1056-8719(92)90013-Q

V. Bouet, L. Borel, F. Harlay, Y. Gahery, and M. Lacour, Kinematics of treadmill locomotion in rats conceived, born, and reared in a hypergravity field (2 g), Behavioural Brain Research, vol.150, issue.1-2, pp.207-216, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(03)00258-4

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00095298

V. Bouet, M. Boulouard, J. Toutain, D. Divoux, M. Bernaudin et al., The adhesive removal test: a sensitive method to assess sensorimotor deficits in mice, Nature Protocols, vol.17, issue.10, 2009.
DOI : 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.533505

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00863258

F. Bretzner and T. Drew, Contribution of the Motor Cortex to the Structure and the Timing of Hindlimb Locomotion in the Cat: A Microstimulation Study, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.94, issue.1, pp.657-672, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.01245.2004

C. Brosamle and M. Schwab, Cells of origin, course, and termination patterns of the ventral, uncrossed component of the mature rat corticospinal tract, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.41, issue.2, pp.293-303, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970922)386:2<293::AID-CNE9>3.0.CO;2-X

J. Broton, Z. Nikolic, S. Suys, and B. Calancie, Kinematic Analysis of Limb Position during Quadrupedal Locomotion in Rats, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.13, issue.7, pp.409-416, 1996.
DOI : 10.1089/neu.1996.13.409

L. Brown, Rubrospinal projections in the rat, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.18, issue.2, pp.169-187, 1974.
DOI : 10.1002/cne.901540205

T. Brown and C. Sherrington, The rule of reflex response in the limb reflexes of the mammal and its exceptions, The Journal of Physiology, vol.44, issue.3, pp.125-130, 1912.
DOI : 10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001504

E. Brustein and S. Rossignol, Recovery of locomotion after ventral and ventrolateral spinal lesions in the cat. I. Deficits and adaptive mechanisms, J Neurophysiol, vol.80, pp.1245-1267, 1998.

A. Buschges, Sensory Control and Organization of Neural Networks Mediating Coordination of Multisegmental Organs for Locomotion, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.93, issue.3, pp.1127-1135, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00615.2004

S. Butt and O. Kiehn, Functional Identification of Interneurons Responsible for Left-Right Coordination of Hindlimbs in Mammals, Neuron, vol.38, issue.6, pp.953-963, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00353-2

M. Canu and C. Garnier, A 3D analysis of fore- and hindlimb motion during overground and ladder walking: Comparison of control and unloaded rats, Experimental Neurology, vol.218, issue.1, pp.98-108, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.04.009

J. Chang, L. Shi, F. Luo, and D. Woodward, Neural responses in multiple basal ganglia regions following unilateral dopamine depletion in behaving rats performing a treadmill locomotion task, Experimental Brain Research, vol.427, issue.Pt 2, pp.193-207, 2006.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-005-0312-7

J. Collazos-castro, E. Lopez-dolado, and M. Nieto-sampedro, Locomotor Deficits and Adaptive Mechanisms after Thoracic Spinal Cord Contusion in the Adult Rat, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.23, issue.1, pp.1-17, 2006.
DOI : 10.1089/neu.2006.23.1

B. Conway, H. Hultborn, and O. Kiehn, Proprioceptive input resets central locomotor rhythm in the spinal cat, Experimental Brain Research, vol.68, issue.3, pp.643-656, 1987.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00249807

G. Courtine, B. Song, R. Roy, H. Zhong, J. Herrmann et al., Recovery of supraspinal control of stepping via indirect propriospinal relay connections after spinal cord injury, Nature Medicine, vol.81, issue.1, pp.69-74, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.01073.2004

P. Couto, V. Filipe, L. Magalhaes, J. Pereira, L. Costa et al., A comparison of two-dimensional and three-dimensional techniques for the determination of hindlimb kinematics during treadmill locomotion in rats following spinal cord injury, Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol.173, issue.2, pp.193-200, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.06.006

D. Cunha, C. Wietzikoski, E. Ferro, M. Martinez, G. Vital et al., Hemiparkinsonian rats rotate toward the side with the weaker dopaminergic neurotransmission, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.189, issue.2, pp.364-372, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.01.012

H. Dawes, C. Enzinger, H. Johansen-berg, M. Bogdanovic, C. Guy et al., Walking performance and its recovery in chronic stroke in relation to extent of lesion overlap with the descending motor tract, Experimental Brain Research, vol.16, issue.3, pp.325-333, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-007-1237-0

L. De-medinaceli, W. Freed, and R. Wyatt, An index of the functional condition of rat sciatic nerve based on measurements made from walking tracks, Experimental Neurology, vol.77, issue.3, pp.634-643, 1982.
DOI : 10.1016/0014-4886(82)90234-5

A. Delval, P. Krystkowiak, J. Blatt, M. Delliaux, A. Destee et al., Caract??ristiques ??volutives des troubles de locomotion dans la maladie de Huntington, Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.38, issue.2, pp.117-125, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neucli.2008.01.003

D. Otter, A. Geurts, A. De-haart, M. Mulder, T. Duysens et al., Step characteristics during obstacle avoidance in hemiplegic stroke, Experimental Brain Research, vol.64, issue.2, pp.180-192, 2005.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-004-2057-0

D. Otter, A. R. Geurts, A. C. De-haart, M. Mulder, T. Duysens et al., Step characteristics during obstacle avoidance in hemiplegic stroke, Experimental Brain Research, vol.64, issue.2, pp.180-192, 2005.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-004-2057-0

J. Deniau, A. Menetrey, and S. Charpier, The lamellar organization of the rat substantia nigra pars reticulata: Segregated patterns of striatal afferents and relationship to the topography of corticostriatal projections, Neuroscience, vol.73, issue.3, pp.761-781, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4522(96)00088-7

V. Dietz, Locomotor training in paraplegic patients, Annals of Neurology, vol.344, issue.6, p.965, 1995.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.410380621

V. Dietz, Proprioception and locomotor disorders, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol.122, issue.10, pp.781-790, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/nrn939

V. Dietz, Spinal cord pattern generators for locomotion, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.114, issue.8, pp.1379-1389, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00120-2

V. Dietz, K. Nakazawa, M. Wirz, and T. Erni, Level of spinal cord lesion determines locomotor activity in spinal man, Experimental Brain Research, vol.128, issue.3, pp.405-409, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/s002210050861

V. Dietz and J. Michel, Locomotion in Parkinson's disease: neuronal coupling of upper and lower limbs, Brain, vol.131, issue.12, pp.3421-3431, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awn263

T. Drew, Motor cortical activity during voluntary gait modifications in the cat. I. Cells related to the forelimbs, J Neurophysiol, vol.70, pp.179-199, 1993.

T. Drew and S. Rossignol, Phase-dependent responses evoked in limb muscles by stimulation of medullary reticular formation during locomotion in thalamic cats, J Neurophysiol, vol.52, pp.653-675, 1984.

T. Drew and S. Rossignol, Functional organization within the medullary reticular formation of intact unanesthetized cat. I. Movements evoked by microstimulation, J Neurophysiol, vol.64, pp.767-781, 1990.

T. Drew and S. Rossignol, Functional organization within the medullary reticular formation of intact unanesthetized cat. II. Electromyographic activity evoked by microstimulation, J Neurophysiol, vol.64, pp.782-795, 1990.

T. Drew, W. Jiang, and W. Widajewicz, Contributions of the motor cortex to the control of the hindlimbs during locomotion in the cat, Brain Research Reviews, vol.40, issue.1-3, pp.178-191, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00200-X

T. Drew, S. Prentice, and B. Schepens, Cortical and brainstem control of locomotion, Prog Brain Res, vol.143, pp.251-261, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0079-6123(03)43025-2

T. Drew, J. Andujar, K. Lajoie, and S. Yakovenko, Cortical mechanisms involved in visuomotor coordination during precision walking, Brain Research Reviews, vol.57, issue.1, pp.199-211, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.017

J. Duysens and K. Pearson, Inhibition of flexor burst generation by loading ankle extensor muscles in walking cats, Brain Research, vol.187, issue.2, pp.321-332, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90206-1

E. Eidelberg and Y. J. , Effects of corticospinal lesions upon treadmill locomotion by cats, Experimental Brain Research, vol.43, issue.1, 1981.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00238815

R. Faull and J. Carman, Ascending projections of the substantia nigra in the rat,, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.85, issue.1, pp.73-92, 1968.
DOI : 10.1002/cne.901320104

J. Feekes and M. Cassell, The vascular supply of the functional compartments of the human striatum, Brain, vol.129, issue.8, pp.2189-2201, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awl158

J. Feldman and S. Grillner, Control of vertebrate respiration and locomotion: a brief account, Physiologist, vol.26, pp.310-316, 1983.

V. Filipe, J. Pereira, L. Costa, A. Mauricio, P. Couto et al., Effect of skin movement on the analysis of hindlimb kinematics during treadmill locomotion in rats, Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol.153, issue.1, pp.55-61, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2005.10.006

T. Freret, V. Bouet, C. Leconte, S. Roussel, L. Chazalviel et al., Behavioral deficits after distal focal cerebral ischemia in mice: Usefulness of adhesive removal test., Behavioral Neuroscience, vol.123, issue.1, pp.224-230, 2009.
DOI : 10.1037/a0014157

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00863264

K. Friel, T. Drew, and J. Martin, Differential Activity-Dependent Development of Corticospinal Control of Movement and Final Limb Position During Visually Guided Locomotion, Journal of Neurophysiology, vol.97, issue.5, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/jn.00750.2006

L. Garcia-campmany and F. Stam, From circuits to behaviour: motor networks in vertebrates, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.116-125
DOI : 10.1016/j.conb.2010.01.002

E. Garcia-rill, The basal ganglia and the locomotor regions, Brain Research Reviews, vol.11, issue.1, pp.47-63, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/0165-0173(86)90009-3

E. Garcia-rill and R. Skinner, The mesencephalic locomotor region. I. Activation of a medullary projection site, Brain Research, vol.411, issue.1, pp.1-12, 1987.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(87)90675-5

E. Garcia-rill, N. Kinjo, Y. Atsuta, Y. Ishikawa, M. Webber et al., Posterior midbrain-induced locomotion, Brain Research Bulletin, vol.24, issue.3, pp.499-508, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0361-9230(90)90103-7

C. Garnier, M. Falempin, and M. Canu, A 3D analysis of fore- and hindlimb motion during locomotion: Comparison of overground and ladder walking in rats, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.186, issue.1, pp.57-65, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.07.023

M. Gimenez-y-ribotta, D. Orsal, D. Feraboli-lohnherr, A. Privat, J. Provencher et al., Kinematic Analysis of Recovered Locomotor Movements of the Hindlimbs in Paraplegic Rats Transplanted with Monoaminergic Embryonic Neuronsa, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.15, issue.7, pp.521-523, 1998.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09093.x

M. Goodale and . Murison, The effects of lesions of the superior colliculus on locomotor orientation and the orienting reflex in the rat, Brain Research, vol.88, issue.2, pp.243-261, 1975.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90388-1

M. Goulding, Circuits controlling vertebrate locomotion: moving in a new direction, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol.26, issue.7, 2009.
DOI : 10.1038/nrn2608

S. Grillner, Neurobiological bases of rhythmic motor acts in vertebrates, Science, vol.228, issue.4696, pp.143-149, 1985.
DOI : 10.1126/science.3975635

S. Grillner, The motor infrastructure: from ion channels to neuronal networks, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol.4, issue.7, pp.573-586, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/nrn1137

S. Grillner and S. Rossignol, On the initiation of the swing phase of locomotion in chronic spinal cats, Brain Research, vol.146, issue.2, pp.269-277, 1978.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(78)90973-3

S. Grillner, A. Mcclellan, and C. Perret, Entrainment of the spinal pattern generators for swimming by mechano-sensitive elements in the lamprey spinal cord in vitro, Brain Research, vol.217, issue.2, pp.380-386, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(81)90015-9

S. Grillner and P. Wallen, Central Pattern Generators for Locomotion, with Special Reference to Vertebrates, Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol.8, issue.1, pp.233-261, 1985.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ne.08.030185.001313

S. Grillner and P. Wallen, The ionic mechanisms underlying N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-induced, tetrodotoxin-resistant membrane potential oscillations in lamprey neurons active during locomotion, Neuroscience Letters, vol.60, issue.3, pp.289-294, 1985.
DOI : 10.1016/0304-3940(85)90592-0

S. Grillner, J. Hellgren, A. Menard, K. Saitoh, and M. Wikstrom, Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs ??? roles for the striatum and pallidum, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.28, issue.7, pp.364-370, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.004

B. Haelewyn, T. Freret, E. Pacary, P. Schumann-bard, M. Boulouard et al., Long-term evaluation of sensorimotor and mnesic behaviour following striatal NMDA-induced unilateral excitotoxic lesion in the mouse, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.178, issue.2, pp.235-243, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.12.023

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00867870

W. Jiang and T. Drew, Effects of bilateral lesions of the dorsolateral funiculi and dorsal columns at the level of the low thoracic spinal cord on the control of locomotion in the adult cat. I. Treadmill walking, J Neurophysiol, vol.76, pp.849-866, 1996.

B. Kably and T. Drew, Corticoreticular pathways in the cat. I. Projection patterns and collaterization, J Neurophysiol, vol.80, pp.389-405, 1998.

B. Kably and T. Drew, Corticoreticular pathways in the cat. II. Discharge activity of neurons in area 4 during voluntary gait modifications, J Neurophysiol, vol.80, pp.406-424, 1998.

P. Kennedy, Corticospinal, rubrospinal and rubro-olivary projections: a unifying hypothesis, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.13, issue.12, pp.474-479, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0166-2236(90)90079-P

O. Kiehn, LOCOMOTOR CIRCUITS IN THE MAMMALIAN SPINAL CORD, Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol.29, issue.1, pp.279-306, 2006.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112910

J. Kojima, Y. Yamaji, M. Matsumura, A. Nambu, M. Inase et al., Excitotoxic lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus produce contralateral hemiparkinsonism in the monkey, Neuroscience Letters, vol.226, issue.2, pp.111-114, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0304-3940(97)00254-1

M. Kuchler, K. Fouad, O. Weinmann, M. Schwab, and O. Raineteau, Red nucleus projections to distinct motor neuron pools in the rat spinal cord, Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.20, issue.4, pp.349-359, 2002.
DOI : 10.1002/cne.10259

M. Kurz, K. Pothakos, S. Jamaluddin, M. Scott-pandorf, C. Arellano et al., A chronic mouse model of Parkinson's disease has a reduced gait pattern certainty, Neuroscience Letters, vol.429, issue.1, pp.39-42, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.09.060

A. Lamontagne, J. Stephenson, and J. Fung, Physiological evaluation of gait disturbances post stroke, Clinical Neurophysiology, vol.118, issue.4, pp.717-729, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.clinph.2006.12.013

S. Lavoie and T. Drew, Discharge characteristics of neurons in the red nucleus during voluntary gait modifications: a comparison with the motor cortex, J Neurophysiol, vol.88, pp.1791-1814, 2002.

H. Leblond, L. Esperance, M. Orsal, D. Rossignol, and S. , Treadmill locomotion in the intact and spinal mouse, J Neurosci, vol.23, pp.11411-11419, 2003.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00109888

R. Lemon, Descending Pathways in Motor Control, Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol.31, issue.1, pp.195-218, 2008.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.neuro.31.060407.125547

X. Li, S. Florence, and J. Kaas, Areal Distributions of Cortical Neurons Projecting to Different Levels of the Caudal Brain Stem and Spinal Cord in Rats, Somatosensory & Motor Research, vol.222, issue.3, pp.315-335, 1990.
DOI : 10.3109/08990229009144711

K. Matsuyama and T. Drew, Vestibulospinal and reticulospinal neuronal activity during locomotion in the intact cat. I. Walking on a level surface, J Neurophysiol, vol.84, pp.2237-2256, 2000.

K. Matsuyama and T. Drew, Vestibulospinal and reticulospinal neuronal activity during locomotion in the intact cat. II. Walking on an inclined plane, J Neurophysiol, vol.84, pp.2257-2276, 2000.

K. Matsuyama, F. Mori, K. Nakajima, T. Drew, M. Aoki et al., Locomotor role of the corticoreticular???reticulospinal???spinal interneuronal system, Prog Brain Res, vol.143, pp.239-249, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0079-6123(03)43024-0

M. Mcewen and D. Stehouwer, Kinematic Analyses of Air-Stepping of Neonatal Rats after Mid-Thoracic Spinal Cord Compression, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.18, issue.12, pp.1383-1397, 2001.
DOI : 10.1089/08977150152725678

A. Mcgeorge and R. Faull, The organization of the projection from the cerebral cortex to the striatum in the rat, Neuroscience, vol.29, issue.3, pp.503-537, 1989.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4522(89)90128-0

G. Metz, V. Dietz, M. Schwab, and H. Van-de-meent, The effects of unilateral pyramidal tract section on hindlimb motor performance in the rat, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.96, issue.1-2, pp.37-46, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(97)00195-2

G. Metz, D. Merkler, V. Dietz, M. Schwab, and K. Fouad, Efficient testing of motor function in spinal cord injured rats, Brain Research, vol.883, issue.2, pp.165-177, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02778-5

G. Metz and I. Whishaw, Cortical and subcortical lesions impair skilled walking in the ladder rung walking test: a new task to evaluate fore- and hindlimb stepping, placing, and co-ordination, Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol.115, issue.2, pp.169-179, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0270(02)00012-2

G. Metz, A. Tse, M. Ballermann, L. Smith, and K. Fouad, The unilateral 6-OHDA rat model of Parkinson's disease revisited: an electromyographic and behavioural analysis, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.39, issue.3, pp.735-744, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04238.x

F. Middleton and P. Strick, Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits, Brain Research Reviews, vol.31, issue.2-3, pp.236-250, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00040-5

E. Miklyaeva, E. Castaneda, and I. Whishaw, Skilled reaching deficits in unilateral dopamine-depleted rats: impairments in movement and posture and compensatory adjustments, J Neurosci, vol.14, pp.7148-7158, 1994.

E. Miklyaeva, D. Martens, and I. Whishaw, Impairments and compensatory adjustments in spontaneous movement after unilateral dopamine depletion in rats, Brain Research, vol.681, issue.1-2, pp.23-40, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(95)00277-W

M. Miller, The origin of corticospinal projection neurons in rat, Experimental Brain Research, vol.67, issue.2, pp.339-351, 1987.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00248554

E. Millerot-serrurot, A. Chausset, C. Mossiat, A. Prigent-tessier, N. Bertrand et al., Effect of early decrease in the lesion size on late brain tissue loss, synaptophysin expression and functionality after a focal brain lesion in rats, Neurochemistry International, vol.50, issue.2, pp.328-335, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuint.2006.08.016

K. Milner and G. Mogenson, Electrical and chemical activation of the mesencephalic and subthalamic locomotor regions in freely moving rats, Brain Research, vol.452, issue.1-2, pp.273-285, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90031-5

S. Mori, S. Ueda, H. Yamada, and Y. Sano, Immunohistochemical demonstration of serotonin nerve fibers in the corpus striatum of the rat, cat and monkey, Anatomy and Embryology, vol.121, issue.(Suppl) 247, 1985.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00707298

S. Mori, T. Sakamoto, Y. Ohta, K. Takakusaki, and K. Matsuyama, Site-specific postural and locomotor changes evoked in awake, freely moving intact cats by stimulating the brainstem, Brain Research, vol.505, issue.1, pp.66-74, 1989.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(89)90116-9

G. Muir and I. Whishaw, Complete locomotor recovery following corticospinal tract lesions: measurement of ground reaction forces during overground locomotion in rats, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.103, issue.1, pp.45-53, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(99)00018-2

G. Muir and I. Whishaw, Red nucleus lesions impair overground locomotion in rats: a kinetic analysis, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.40, issue.3, pp.1113-1122, 2000.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00987.x

L. Nashner and H. Forssberg, Phase-dependent organization of postural adjustments associated with arm movements while walking, J Neurophysiol, vol.55, pp.1382-1394, 1986.

D. Newman and R. Liu, Nuclear origins of brainstem reticulocortical systems in the rat, American Journal of Anatomy, vol.1, issue.3, 1987.
DOI : 10.1002/aja.1001780309

A. Ohlsson and B. Johansson, Environment Influences Functional Outcome of Cerebral Infarction in Rats, Stroke, vol.26, issue.4, pp.644-649, 1995.
DOI : 10.1161/01.STR.26.4.644

G. Orlovsky, Activity of vestibulospinal neurons during locomotion, Brain Research, vol.46, pp.85-98, 1972.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(72)90007-8

G. Orlovsky, Role of afferent activity in the generation of stepping movements, Neurophysiology, vol.35, issue.4, pp.304-310, 1972.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01063747

G. Orlovsky, T. Deliagina, and P. Wallen, Vestibular control of swimming in lamprey. I. Responses of reticulospinal neurons to roll and pitch, Exp Brain Res, vol.90, pp.479-488, 1992.

P. Pahapill and A. Lozano, The pedunculopontine nucleus and Parkinson's disease, Brain, vol.123, issue.9, 2000.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/123.9.1767

A. Parent, Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.13, issue.7, pp.254-258, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0166-2236(90)90105-J

S. Parker and H. Sinnamon, Forward locomotion elicited by electrical stimulation in the diencephalon and mesencephalon of the awake rat, Physiol Behav, vol.31, pp.581-587, 1983.

J. Pereira, A. Cabrita, V. Filipe, J. Bulas-cruz, P. Couto et al., A comparison analysis of hindlimb kinematics during overground and treadmill locomotion in rats, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.172, issue.2, pp.212-218, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.04.027

L. Mendell, Changes in motoneuron properties and synaptic inputs related to step training after spinal cord transection in rats, J Neurosci, vol.27, pp.4460-4471, 2007.

R. Postuma and A. Dagher, Basal Ganglia Functional Connectivity Based on a Meta-Analysis of 126 Positron Emission Tomography and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Publications, Cerebral Cortex, vol.16, issue.10, pp.1508-1521, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/cercor/bhj088

N. Poulton and G. Muir, Treadmill training ameliorates dopamine loss but not behavioral deficits in hemi-Parkinsonian rats, Experimental Neurology, vol.193, issue.1, pp.181-197, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.12.006

S. Prentice and T. Drew, Contributions of the reticulospinal system to the postural adjustments occurring during voluntary gait modifications, J Neurophysiol, vol.85, pp.679-698, 2001.

S. Rossignol, L. Bouyer, D. Barthelemy, C. Langlet, and H. Leblond, Recovery of locomotion in the cat following spinal cord lesions, Brain Research Reviews, vol.40, issue.1-3, pp.257-266, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00208-4

S. Rossignol, R. Dubuc, and J. Gossard, Dynamic Sensorimotor Interactions in Locomotion, Physiological Reviews, vol.86, issue.1, 2006.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00028.2005

C. Said, P. Goldie, A. Patla, W. Sparrow, and K. Martin, Obstacle crossing in subjects with stroke, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol.80, issue.9, pp.1054-1059, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90060-6

C. M. Said, P. A. Goldie, A. E. Patla, and W. A. Sparrow, Effect of stroke on step characteristics of obstacle crossing, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol.82, issue.12, pp.1712-1719, 2001.
DOI : 10.1053/apmr.2001.26247

C. M. Said, P. A. Goldie, E. Culham, W. A. Sparrow, A. E. Patla et al., Control of lead and trail limbs during obstacle crossing following stroke, Phys Ther, vol.85, pp.413-427, 2005.

C. Said, P. Goldie, A. Patla, E. Culham, W. Sparrow et al., Balance during obstacle crossing following stroke, Gait & Posture, vol.27, issue.1, pp.23-30, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.12.009

K. Satoh, The origin of reticulospinal fibers in the rat: a HRP study, J Hirnforsch, vol.20, pp.313-322, 1979.

M. Schwanzel-fukuda, J. Morrell, and D. Pfaff, Localization of forebrain neurons which project directly to the medulla and spinal cord of the rat by retrograde tracing with wheat germ agglutinin, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.107, issue.1, pp.1-20, 1984.
DOI : 10.1002/cne.902260102

L. Shi, F. Luo, D. Woodward, and J. Chang, Neural responses in multiple basal ganglia regions during spontaneous and treadmill locomotion tasks in rats, Experimental Brain Research, vol.157, issue.3, pp.303-314, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-004-1844-y

M. Shik and G. Orlovsky, Neurophysiology of locomotor automatism, Physiol Rev, vol.56, pp.465-501, 1976.

R. Skinner, N. Kinjo, Y. Ishikawa, J. Biedermann, and E. Garcia-rill, Locomotor projections from the pedunculopontine nucleus to the medioventral medulla, NeuroReport, vol.1, issue.3, pp.207-210, 1990.
DOI : 10.1097/00001756-199011000-00008

K. Takakusaki, T. Habaguchi, J. Ohtinata-sugimoto, K. Saitoh, and T. Sakamoto, Basal ganglia efferents to the brainstem centers controlling postural muscle tone and locomotion: a new concept for understanding motor disorders in basal ganglia dysfunction, Neuroscience, vol.119, issue.1, pp.293-308, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0306-4522(03)00095-2

E. Thelen, G. Bradshaw, and J. Ward, Spontaneous kicking in month-old infants: Manifestation of a human central locomotor program, Behavioral and Neural Biology, vol.32, issue.1, pp.45-53, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/S0163-1047(81)90257-0

A. Thota, S. Carlson, and R. Jung, Recovery of locomotor function after treadmill training of incomplete spinal cord injured rats, Biomed Sci Instrum, vol.37, pp.63-67, 2001.

A. Thota, S. Watson, E. Knapp, B. Thompson, and R. Jung, Neuromechanical Control of Locomotion in the Rat, Journal of Neurotrauma, vol.22, issue.4, pp.442-465, 2005.
DOI : 10.1089/neu.2005.22.442

A. Varejao, P. Melo-pinto, M. Meek, V. Filipe, and J. Bulas-cruz, Methods for the experimental functional assessment of rat sciatic nerve regeneration, Neurological Research, vol.44, issue.2, pp.186-194, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0014-4886(03)00208-5

A. Varejao and V. Filipe, Contribution of cutaneous inputs from the hindpaw to the control of locomotion in rats, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.176, issue.2, pp.193-201, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.09.018

J. Veening, F. Cornelissen, and P. Lieven, The topical organization of the afferents to the caudatoputamen of the rat. A horseradish peroxidase study, Neuroscience, vol.5, issue.7, pp.1253-1268, 1980.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4522(80)90198-0

R. Vlamings, V. Visser-vandewalle, G. Koopmans, E. Joosten, R. Kozan et al., High frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus improves speed of locomotion but impairs forelimb movement in Parkinsonian rats, Neuroscience, vol.148, issue.3, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.06.043

J. Wagner, T. Stephan, R. Kalla, H. Bruckmann, M. Strupp et al., Mind the bend: cerebral activations associated with mental imagery of walking along a curved path, Experimental Brain Research, vol.570, issue.2, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s00221-008-1520-8

Y. Wang, B. Bontempi, S. Hong, K. Mehta, P. Weinstein et al., A Comprehensive Analysis of Gait Impairment after Experimental Stroke and the Therapeutic Effect of Environmental Enrichment in Rats, Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, vol.118, issue.12, pp.1936-1950, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/nn1699

B. Watson, W. Dietrich, R. Busto, M. Wachtel, and M. Ginsberg, Induction of reproducible brain infarction by photochemically initiated thrombosis, Annals of Neurology, vol.9, issue.5, pp.497-504, 1985.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.410170513

A. Webb and G. Muir, Unilateral dorsal column and rubrospinal tract injuries affect overground locomotion in the unrestrained rat, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.4, issue.2, pp.412-422, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(97)00152-6

I. Whishaw, B. Coles, S. Pellis, and E. Miklyaeva, Impairments and compensation in mouth and limb use in free feeding after unilateral dopamine depletions in a rat analog of human Parkinson's disease, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.84, issue.1-2, pp.167-177, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(96)00148-9

I. Q. Whishaw and G. A. Metz, Absence of impairments or recovery mediated by the uncrossed pyramidal tract in the rat versus enduring deficits produced by the crossed pyramidal tract, Behavioural Brain Research, vol.134, issue.1-2, pp.323-336, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00051-7

W. Widajewicz, B. Kably, and T. Drew, Motor cortical activity during voluntary gait modifications in the cat. II. Cells related to the hindlimbs, J Neurophysiol, vol.72, pp.2070-2089, 1994.

J. Yu and E. Eidelberg, Effects of vestibulospinal lesions upon locomotor function in cats, Brain Research, vol.220, issue.1, pp.179-183, 1981.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(81)90222-5

L. Zhu, R. Lindenberg, M. Alexander, and G. Schlaug, Lesion Load of the Corticospinal Tract Predicts Motor Impairment in Chronic Stroke, Stroke, vol.41, issue.5, pp.910-915, 2010.
DOI : 10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.577023