. Tab, 4.4 Moyennes et écarts-type des valeurs de précision

. Tab, 4.7 Moyennes et écarts-type des valeurs de F-mesure

. Tab, 5.4 Performances de l'extension de requêtes avec et sans préxation

. Nippon and . Japan, Nippon Nihon) Life (life, lifetime, lifespan) far (far) Japan (Japan, Nippon , Nihon) large (large, big) life (life, lifetime, lifespan) insurance (insurance) concern (business, concern, business_concern, business_organization, business_organisation)

C. Alvarez, P. Langlais, and J. Et-nie, Word Pairs in Language Modeling for Information Retrieval, Laboratoire de recherche appliquée en linguistique informatique (RALI), 2003.

A. Arampatzis, T. Tsoris, and C. H. Koster, irena : Information Retrieval Engine Based on Natural Language Analysis, Computing Science Institute, 1996.

A. Arampatzis, T. V. Weide, C. H. Koster, and P. V. Et-bommel, Linguistically Motivated Information Retrieval, éditeur : Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, p.201222, 2000.

J. Aslam and M. Et-montague, Models for metasearch, Proceedings of the 24th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '01, 2001.
DOI : 10.1145/383952.384007

L. Audibert, Outils d'exploration de corpus et désambiguïsation lexicale automatique, Thèse de doctorat, 2003.

R. A. Baeza-yates and B. A. Et-ribeiro-neto, Modern Information Retrieval, 1999.

S. Banerjee and T. Et-pedersen, Extended Gloss Overlap as a Measure of Semantic Relatedness, Proceedings of the 18th International Joint Conference on Articial Intelligence, 2003.

J. Bar-ilan, M. Levene, and M. Et-mat-hassan, Dynamics of Search Engine Rankings -A Case Study, Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Web Dynamics, 2004.

B. T. Bartell, G. W. Cottrell, and R. K. Et-belew, Automatic Combination of Multiple Ranked Retrieval Systems, Proceedings of the 17th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1994.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4471-2099-5_18

M. Baziz, Indexation conceptuelle guidée par ontologie pour la recherche d'information, Thèse de doctorat, 2005.

S. M. Beitzel, E. C. Jensen, A. Chowdhury, D. A. Grossman, O. Frieder et al., Fusion of Eective Retrieval Strategies in the same Information Retrieval System, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, issue.10, p.55859868, 2004.

N. J. Belkin, P. Kantor, E. A. Fox, and J. A. Shaw, Combining the evidence of multiple query representations for information retrieval, Information Processing & Management, vol.31, issue.3, p.31414448, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4573(94)00057-A

C. Berrut, Indexing medical reports: The rime approach, Information Processing & Management, vol.26, issue.1, p.93109, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4573(90)90011-P

R. Besançon, Intégration de connaissances syntaxiques et sémantiques dans les représentations vectorielles de textes : application au calcul de similarités sémantiques dans le cadre du modèle DSIR, Thèse de doctorat, 2002.

M. W. Bilotti, B. Katz, and J. Et-lin, What Works Better for Question Answering : Stemming or Morphological Query Expansion, Proceedings of Question Answering Workshop : ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 2004.

B. Bommier-pincemin, Diusion ciblée automatique d'informations : conception et mise en ÷uvre d'une linguistique textuelle pour la caractérisation des destinataires et des documents, Thèse de doctorat, 1999.

A. Bookstein, A. T. Klein, and T. Et-raita, Content-Bearing Words by Serial Clustering, Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1995.
DOI : 10.1145/215206.215377

C. D. Borda, Mémoire sur les élections au scrutin, 1781.

M. Boughanem, Système de recherche d'informations : d'un modèle classique à un modèle connexionniste, Thèse de doctorat, 1992.

M. Boughanem, Outils de validation en recherche d'information. La campagne d'évaluation TREC, 2003.

M. Boughanem, T. Dkaki, J. Mothe, and C. Et-soulé-dupuy, mercure at TREC-7, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1998.
DOI : 10.1007/3-540-44645-1_19

É. Brill, A Simple Rule-Based Part-of-Speech Tagger, Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing (ANLP), 1992.

C. Buckley, G. Salton, and J. Et-allan, Automatic Retrieval with Locality Information using smart, Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1992.

C. Buckley and E. M. Et-voorhees, Evaluating evaluation measure stability, Proceedings of the 23rd annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '00, 2000.
DOI : 10.1145/345508.345543
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.37.7829

J. P. Callan, W. B. Croft, and S. M. Et-harding, The INQUERY Retrieval System, Proceedings of the International Conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications, 1992.
DOI : 10.1007/978-3-7091-7557-6_14

J. Carlberger, H. Dalianis, M. Hassel, and O. Et-knutsson, Improving Precision in Information Retrieval for Swedish using Stemming, Proceedings of the 13th Nordic Conference on Computational Linguistics (NODALIDA), 2001.

J. Chevallet, Un modèle logique de recherche d'information appliqué au formalisme des graphes conceptuels. Le prototype elen et son expérimentation sur un corpus de composants logiciels, Thèse de doctorat, 1992.

J. Chevallet, Modélisation logique pour la recherche d'information, Lavoisier, éditeur : Les systèmes de recherche d'information, p.105138, 2004.

V. Claveau, Acquisition automatique de lexiques sémantiques pour la recherche d'information, Thèse de doctorat, 2003.

V. Claveau and M. Et-l-'homme, Apprentissage par analogie de liens sémantiques entre dérivés morphologiques, Proceedings of conférence de terminologie et intelligence articielle (TIA), 2005.

V. Claveau and M. Et-l-'homme, Structuring Terminology by Analogy Machine Learning, Proceedings of the International Conference on Terminology and Knowledge Engineering (TKE), 2005.

V. Claveau and P. Et-sébillot, Apprentissage semi-supervisé de patrons d'extraction de couples nom-verbe, p.153182, 2004.

V. Claveau and P. Et-sébillot, Extension de requêtes par lien sémantique nom-verbe acquis sur corpus, Proceedings of 11ème conférence annuelle sur le traitement automatique des langues naturelles (TALN), 2004.

C. W. Cleverdon, The Craneld Tests on English Language Devices, Aslib Proceedings, vol.19, issue.6, p.173184, 1967.

M. D. Condorcet, Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité des voix, 1785.

B. Cornuéjols, A. Miclet, and L. , Apprentissage articiel, 2002.

W. B. Croft, Combining Approaches to Information Retrieval, éditeur : Advances in Information Retrieval : Recent Research from the Center for Intelligent Information Retrieval, p.136, 1997.
DOI : 10.1007/0-306-47019-5_1
URL : http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/pubfiles/ir-188.pdf

W. B. Croft and D. J. Et-harper, USING PROBABILISTIC MODELS OF DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL WITHOUT RELEVANCE INFORMATION, Journal of Documentation, vol.35, issue.4, p.285295, 1979.
DOI : 10.1108/eb026683

S. Cronen-townsend, Y. Zhou, and W. B. Et-croft, Predicting query performance, Proceedings of the 25th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '02, 2002.
DOI : 10.1145/564376.564429
URL : http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/pubfiles/ir-250.pdf

H. Cunningham, gate, a General Architecture for Text Engineering, Computers and the Humanities, vol.36, issue.1, p.223254, 2002.

B. Daille, Study and Implementation of Combined Techniques for Automatic Extraction of Terminology éditeurs : The Balancing Act : Combining Symbolic and Statistical Approaches to Language, In Resnik, P. et Klavans, J, p.4966, 1996.

B. Daille, Découvertes linguistiques en corpus. Mémoire d'habilitation à diriger des recherches, 2002.

B. Daille, C. Fabre, and P. Et-sébillot, Applications of Computational Morphology, p.210234, 2002.

S. Deerwester, S. T. Dumais, T. K. Furnas, and R. A. Et-harman, Indexing by latent semantic analysis, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.41, issue.6, p.41391407, 1990.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199009)41:6<391::AID-ASI1>3.0.CO;2-9
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.108.8490

F. Denis and R. Et-gilleron, Apprentissage à partir d'exemples. Notes de cours, 2000.

G. M. Dillon and A. S. Gray, FASIT: A fully automatic syntactically based indexing system, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.30, issue.2, pp.99-108, 1983.
DOI : 10.1002/asi.4630340202

D. Dubois, H. Prade, and R. R. Et-yager, Fuzzy Information Engineering -A Guided Tour of Applications, 1997.

S. T. Dumais, Improving the retrieval of information from external sources, Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, vol.21, issue.2, p.229236, 1991.
DOI : 10.3758/BF03203370

J. Fagan, Experiments in Automatic Phrase Indexing for Document Retrieval : A Comparison of Syntactic and Non-Syntactic Methods, Thèse de doctorat, 1987.

R. Fagin, R. Kumar, and D. Et-sivakumar, Lists, SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, vol.17, issue.1, p.134160, 2003.
DOI : 10.1137/S0895480102412856

N. Fajah, R. Godin, R. Missaoui, S. David, and P. Et-plante, Analyse d'une méthode d'indexation automatique basée sur une analyse syntaxique de texte, Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, vol.21, issue.1, p.121, 1996.

C. Fellbaum, wordnet : An Electronic Lexical Database. C. Fellbaum, 1998.

E. Fiesler and R. Et-beale, Handbook of Neural Computation, 1996.

E. A. Fox, Extending the Boolean and Vector Space Models of Information Retrieval with P-norm Queries and Multiple Concept Types, Thèse de doctorat, 1983.

E. A. Fox and J. A. Shaw, Combination of Multiple Searches, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1994.

W. B. Frakes, W. B. Frakes, and R. Et-baeza-yates, Stemming Algorithms, éditeurs : Information Retrieval : Data Structures and Algorithms, p.131160, 1992.

G. E. Freund and P. Et-willett, Online Identication of Word Variants and Arbitrary Truncation Searching Using a String Similarity Measure, Information Technology : Research and Development, vol.1, p.177187, 1982.

N. Friburger and D. Et-maurel, Textual Similarity Based on Proper Names, Proceedings of the 25th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 2002.

N. Fuhr, Information Retrieval -From Information Access to Contextual Retrieval, éditeurs : Designing Information Systems. Festschrift für Jürgen Krause, p.4757, 2005.

M. Fuller and J. Et-zobel, Conation-Based Comparison of Stemming Algorithms, Proceedings of the 3th Australian Document Computing Symposium, 1998.

S. Gauch, J. Wang, and S. M. Et-rachakonda, A corpus analysis approach for automatic query expansion and its extension to multiple databases, ACM Transactions on Information Systems, vol.17, issue.3, p.250269, 1999.
DOI : 10.1145/314516.314519

. Gaussier, G. Grefenstette, D. Hull, and R. Et-roux, Recherche d'information en français et traitement automatique des langues, p.41473493, 2000.

. Gaussier, G. Grefenstette, and M. Et-schulze, Traitement du langage naturel et recherche d'informations : quelques expériences sur le français, Proceedings of 1ères journées scientiques et techniques du réseau francophone de l'ingénierie de la langue de l'AUPELF-UREF, 1997.

E. Gaussier, Unsupervised Learning of Derivational Morphology from Inectional Corpora, Proceedings of Workshop on Unsupervised Methods in Natural Language Learning, 37th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), 1999.

J. A. Goldsmith, Unsupervised Learning of the Morphology of a Natural Language, Computational Linguistics, vol.16, issue.1, p.153198, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4573(78)90067-5

J. A. Goldsmith, D. Higgins, and S. Et-soglasnova, Automatic Language- Specic Stemming in Information Retrieval, Proceedings of Workshop of Cross- Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF), 2001.

J. Gonzalo, F. Verdejo, I. Chugur, and I. J. Et-cigarran, Indexing with wordnet Synsets can Improve Text Retrieval, Proceedings of the Workshop on Usage of wordnet for NLP, 17th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING), 1998.

G. Grefenstette, Corpus-Derived First, Second and Third-Order Word Anities, Proceedings of EURALEX International Congress, 1994.

G. Grefenstette, sqlet : Short Query Linguistic Expansion Techniques : Palliating One-Word Queries by Providing Intermediate Structure to Text, Proceedings of 5ème conférence internationale sur la recherche d'informations assistée par ordinateur (RIAO), 1997.

J. Grivolla, Évaluation et prédiction des dicultés des requêtes dans la recherche documentaire pour l'optimisation des systèmes interactifs, 2001.

N. Guarino, C. Massolo, and G. Et-vetere, OntoSeek: content-based access to the Web, IEEE Intelligent Systems, vol.14, issue.3, p.7080, 1999.
DOI : 10.1109/5254.769887

H. Haddad, Extraction et impact des connaissances sur les performances des systèmes de recherche d'information, Thèse de doctorat, 2002.

H. Haddad, Utilisation des syntagmes nominaux dans un système de recherche d'information, Proceedings of 19èmes journées de bases de données avancées (BDA), 2003.

D. Harman, How Eective is Suxing, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.42, issue.1, p.715, 1991.

D. Harman, Relevance feedback revisited, Proceedings of the 15th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '92, 1992.
DOI : 10.1145/133160.133167

N. Hathout, Analogies morpho-synonymiques. Une méthode d'acquisition automatique de liens morphologiques à partir d'un dictionnaire de synonymes, Proceedings of 8ème conférence annuelle sur le traitement automatique des langues naturelles (TALN), 2001.

M. A. Hearst, Automatic acquisition of hyponyms from large text corpora, Proceedings of the 14th conference on Computational linguistics -, 1992.
DOI : 10.3115/992133.992154

J. Hertz, A. Krogh, and G. Palmer, Introduction to the Theory of Neural Computation, 1991.

D. Hull, Using statistical testing in the evaluation of retrieval experiments, Proceedings of the 16th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '93, 1993.
DOI : 10.1145/160688.160758

D. Hull, Stemming Algorithms -A Case Study for Detailed Evaluation, Journal of the American Society of Information Science, vol.47, issue.1, p.7084, 1996.

D. Hull and G. Et-grefenstette, A Detailed Analysis of English Stemming Algorithms, Xerox Research Centre Europe, 1996.

D. Hull, G. Grefenstette, B. M. Schulze, H. Schütze, and J. O. Et-pedersen, Xerox TREC-5 Site Report : Routing, Filtering, NLP and Spanish Tracks, Proceedings of the 5th Internation Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1997.

C. Jacquemin, fastr : A Unication-Based Front-End to Automatic Indexing, Proceedings of 4ème conférence internationale sur la recherche d'informations assistée par ordinateur (RIAO), 1994.

C. Jacquemin, J. L. Klavans, and E. Et-tzoukermann, Expansion of Multi- Word Terms for Indexing and Retrieval using Morphology and Syntax, Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), 1997.

C. Jacquemin and J. Et-royauté, Retrieving Terms and their Variants in a Lexicalised Unication-Based Framework, Proceedings of the 17th ACM International 174, 1994.

Y. Jing and W. B. Et-croft, An Association Thesaurus for Information Retrieval, Proceedings of 4ème conférence internationale sur la recherche d'informations assistée par ordinateur (RIAO), 1994.

K. S. Jones and J. I. Et-tait, Automatic Search of Term Variant Generation, Journal of Documentation, vol.1, issue.1, p.5066, 1984.

C. Jouis, seek, un logiciel d'acquisition de connaissances utilisant un savoir linguistique sans employer de connaissances sur le monde externe, Proceedings of 6èmes journées sur l'acquisition et la validation (JAVA), 1995.

P. Jourlin, S. E. Johnson, S. Jones, K. Et-woodland, and P. C. , Spoken Document Representations for Probabilistic Retrieval. Spoken Document Representations for Probabilistic Retrieval Speech Communication, p.2136, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/s0167-6393(00)00021-2

L. R. Khan, Ontology-Based Information Selection, Thèse de doctorat, 2000.

C. S. Khoo, Automatic Identication of Causal Relations in Text and their Use for Improving Precision in Information Retrieval, Thèse de doctorat, 1995.

A. Kilgarriff and M. Palmer, Special Issue on Senseval, Computers and the Humanities, vol.34, issue.12, 2000.

R. Korhage, Information Storage and Retrieval, 1997.

W. Kraaij and R. Et-pohlmann, Viewing stemming as recall enhancement, Proceedings of the 19th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '96, 1996.
DOI : 10.1145/243199.243209
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.41.3769

D. H. Kraft and D. A. Et-buell, Fuzzy Sets and Generalized Boolean Retrieval Systems, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, vol.19, issue.1, p.4556, 1983.
DOI : 10.1016/s0020-7373(83)80041-8

R. Krovetz, Viewing Morphology as an Inference Process, Proceedings of the 16th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1993.

J. H. Lee, Combining Multiple Evidence from Dierent Properties of Weighting Schemes, Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1995.

J. H. Lee, Analyses of Multiple Evidence Combination, Proceedings of the 20th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1997.

M. Lennon, D. S. Pierce, B. D. Tarry, and P. Et-willett, An Evaluation of some Conation Algorithms for Information Retrieval, Journal of Information Science, vol.3, issue.1, p.177183, 1981.

Y. Lepage, De l'analogie, rendant compte de la communication en linguistique. Mémoire d'habilitation à diriger des recherches, 2003.

D. D. Lewis, An evaluation of phrasal and clustered representations on a text categorization task, Proceedings of the 15th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '92, 1992.
DOI : 10.1145/133160.133172

D. D. Lewis and W. B. Et-croft, Term clustering of syntactic phrases, Proceedings of the 13th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '90, 1990.
DOI : 10.1145/96749.98244

C. D. Loupy, Évaluation de l'apport de connaissances linguistiques en désambiguïsation sémantique et recherche documentaire, Thèse de doctorat, 2000.

C. D. Loupy and P. Et-bellot, Evaluation of Document Retrieval System and Query Diculty, Proceedings of Using Evaluation within HLT Programs : Results and Trends, 2000.

J. B. Lovins, Development of a Stemming Algorithm, Mechanical Translation and Computational Linguistics, vol.11, issue.1, p.2231, 1968.

H. Luhn, The Automatic Creation of Literature Abstracts, IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol.2, issue.2, p.159165, 1978.
DOI : 10.1147/rd.22.0159

C. Lundquist, D. A. Grossman, and O. Et-frieder, Improving relevance feedback in the vector space model, Proceedings of the sixth international conference on Information and knowledge management , CIKM '97, 1997.
DOI : 10.1145/266714.266844

C. Macdonald, B. He, and I. Et-ounis, Predicting Query Performance in Intranet Search, Proceedings of Predicting Query Diculty -Methods and Applications Workshop, ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 2005.

L. Maisonnasse, Vers l'exploitation d'analyse de dépendances en recherche d'information précise, Proceedings of 23ème conférence en informatique des organisations et systèmes d'information et de décision (INFORSID), 2005.

R. Mandala, T. Tokunaga, H. Tanaka, O. Akitoshi, and K. Et-satoh, Ad Hoc Retrieval Experiments using wordnet and Automatically Constructed Thesauri, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1998.

B. Manning, D. Et-schütze, and H. , Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing, 2000.

A. Matsumura, A. Takasu, and J. Et-adachi, The Eect of Information Retrieval Method using Dependency Relationship between Words, Proceedings of 6ème conférence internationale sur la recherche d'informations assistée par ordinateur (RIAO), 2000.

M. C. Mccabe, A. Chowdhury, D. A. Grossman, and O. Et-frieder, A Unied Environment for Fusion of Information Retrieval Approaches, Proceedings of the 8th ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM), 1999.

D. P. Metzler and S. W. Et-hass, The Constituent Object Parser : Syntactic Structure Matching for Information Retrieval, ACM Transactions on Information Systems, vol.7, issue.3, p.296316, 1989.

R. Mihalcean and D. I. Et-moldovan, Semantic Indexing using wordnet Senses, Proceedings of Workshop on IR and NLP, 38th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), 2000.

D. Miller, T. Leek, and R. Schwartz, A hidden Markov model information retrieval system, Proceedings of the 22nd annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '99, 1999.
DOI : 10.1145/312624.312680

M. Mitra, C. Buckley, A. Singhal, and C. Et-cardie, An Analysis of Statistical and Syntactic Phrases, Proceedings of 5ème conférence internationale sur la recherche d'informations assistée par ordinateur (RIAO), 1997.

S. Mizarro, Relevance: The whole history, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.48, issue.9, p.810832, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199709)48:9<810::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-U

F. Moreau and P. Et-sébillot, Contributions des techniques du traitement automatique des langues à la recherche d'information, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inria-00070523

É. Morin, Extraction de liens sémantiques entre termes à partir de corpus de textes techniques, Thèse de doctorat, 1999.

J. Mothe and L. Et-tanguy, Linguistic Features to Predict Query Diculty a Case Study on previous TREC Campaigns, Proceedings of Predicting query diculty -methods and applications Workshop, ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 2005.

I. Moulinier, J. A. Mcculloh, and E. Et-lund, West Group at CLEF 2000: Non-english Monolingual Retrieval, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp.176-187, 2000.
DOI : 10.1007/3-540-44645-1_25

S. L. Mounir, N. Goharian, M. Mahoney, A. Salem, and O. Et-frieder, Fusion of Information Retrieval Engines (fire), Proceedings of the International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Processing Technologies and Applications (PDPTA), 1998.

H. M. Müller, E. E. Kenny, and P. W. Et-sternberg, Textpresso: An Ontology-Based Information Retrieval and Extraction System for Biological Literature, PLoS Biology, vol.2000, issue.11, p.309, 2004.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020309.t007

F. Namer, flemm : un analyseur exionnel du français à base de règles, p.523547, 2000.

J. Nie, Un modèle logique général pour les systèmes de recherche d'informations . Application au prototype RIME, Thèse de doctorat, 1990.

J. Nie, Cours en ligne version, 2006.

D. W. Oard, G. A. Levow, and C. I. Et-cabezas, CLEF Experiments at Maryland: Statistical Stemming and Backoff Translation, Proceedings of Workshop of Cross-Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF), 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/3-540-44645-1_17
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.33.5049

Y. Ogawa, T. Morita, and K. Et-kobayashi, A Fuzzy Document Retrieval System using the Keyword Connection Matrix and a Learning Method. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, p.163179, 1991.

D. B. Parker, Learning Logic. Rapport technique, Center for Computational Research in Economics and Management Science, 1985.

H. J. Peat and P. Et-willett, The Limitations of Term Cooccurrence Data for Query Expansion in Document Retrieval Systems, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, issue.5, p.42378383, 1991.

T. Pedersen and R. Et-bruce, A New Supervised Learning Algorithm for Word Sense Disambiguation, Proceedings of the 14th National Conference on Articial Intelligence, AAAI, 1997.

T. Pedersen, S. Patwardhan, and J. Et-michelizzi, WordNet::Similarity, Demonstration Papers at HLT-NAACL 2004 on XX, HLT-NAACL '04, 2004.
DOI : 10.3115/1614025.1614037

R. Pichon and P. Et-sébillot, From Corpus to Lexicon : From Contexts to Semantic Features, éditeurs : PALC'99 : Practical Applications in Language Corpora, p.375389, 2000.

B. Piwowarski, Techniques d'apprentissage pour le traitement d'informations structurées : application à la recherche d'information, Thèse de doctorat, 2003.

A. Polguère, Lexicologie et sémantique lexicale -Notions fondamentales, 2003.

J. Ponte and W. B. Et-croft, A language modeling approach to information retrieval, Proceedings of the 21st annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '98, 1998.
DOI : 10.1145/290941.291008

M. Popovic and P. Et-willett, The Eectiveness of Stemming for Natural- Language Access to Slovene Textual Data, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, issue.5, p.43384390, 1992.

M. F. Porter, An Algorithm for Sux Stripping, Program, vol.14, issue.1, p.130137, 1980.
DOI : 10.1108/eb046814

Y. Qiu and H. P. Et-frei, Improving the Retrieval Eectiveness by a Similarity Thesaurus, 1995.

R. R. Raghavan and S. K. Et-wong, A critical analysis of vector space model for information retrieval, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.36, issue.5, p.279287, 1986.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(198609)37:5<279::AID-ASI1>3.0.CO;2-Q

T. B. Rajashekar and W. B. Et-croft, Combining automatic and manual index representations in probabilistic retrieval, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.46, issue.4, p.272283, 1995.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199505)46:4<272::AID-ASI4>3.0.CO;2-T

M. Rajman, R. Besançon, and J. Et-chappelier, Le modèle dsir : une approche à base de sémantique distributionnelle pour la recherche documentaire, p.41549578, 2000.

L. Ramshaw and M. Marcus, Text Chunking Using Transformation-Based Learning, Proceedings of the 3th Workshop on Very Large Corpora, 1995.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-017-2390-9_10
URL : http://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9505040

E. M. Renda and U. Et-straccia, Web metasearch, Proceedings of the 2003 ACM symposium on Applied computing , SAC '03, 2003.
DOI : 10.1145/952532.952698

B. A. Ribeiro and R. Et-muntz, A belief network model for IR, Proceedings of the 19th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '96, 1996.
DOI : 10.1145/243199.243272

R. Richardson, A. F. Smeaton, and J. Et-murphy, Using wordnet for Conceptual Distance Measurement, Proceedings of the 16th Research Colloquium of the British Computer Society Information Retrieval Specialist Group, 1996.

C. J. Rijsbergen, A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR THE USE OF CO???OCCURRENCE DATA IN INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, Journal of Documentation, vol.33, issue.2, p.106119, 1977.
DOI : 10.1108/eb026637

C. J. Rijsbergen, A new theoretical framework for information retrieval, Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1986.
DOI : 10.1145/24634.24635

S. E. Robertson, THE PROBABILITY RANKING PRINCIPLE IN IR, Journal of Documentation, vol.33, issue.4, p.294304, 1977.
DOI : 10.1108/eb026647

S. E. Robertson, C. J. Rijsbergen, and M. F. Porter, Probabilistic Models of Indexing and Searching, Proceedings of the 3rd ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1981.

S. E. Robertson and K. Et-spärck-jones, Relevance weighting of search terms, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.30, issue.3, p.129146, 1976.
DOI : 10.1002/asi.4630270302

S. E. Robertson and S. Et-walker, Some Simple Eective Approximations to the 2-Poisson Model for Probabilistic Weighted Retrieval, Proceedings of the 17th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1994.

S. E. Robertson, S. Walker, and M. Et-hancock-beaulieu, Okapi at TREC- 7 : Automatic Ad Hoc, Filtering, VLC and Interactive, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1998.

J. J. Rocchio, Relevance Feedback in Information Retrieval éditeur : The smart Retrieval System : Experiments in Automatic Document Processing, p.313323, 1971.

D. E. Rumelhart, G. E. Hinton, and R. J. Et-williams, Learning Internal Representations by Error Propagation éditeurs : Parallel Distributed Processing, 1986.

I. Ruthven and M. Et-lalmas, A survey on the use of relevance feedback for information access systems, The Knowledge Engineering Review, vol.18, issue.2, p.95145, 2003.
DOI : 10.1017/S0269888903000638

G. Salton, The smart Retrieval System : Experiments in Automatic Document Processing, 1971.

G. Salton, A Theory of Indexing, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathe- matics, 1975.

G. Salton, The state of retrieval system evaluation, Information Processing & Management, vol.28, issue.4, p.441449, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4573(92)90002-H

G. Salton and C. Et-buckley, Term-weighting approaches in automatic text retrieval, Information Processing & Management, vol.24, issue.5, p.513523, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4573(88)90021-0

G. Salton and C. Et-buckley, Improving retrieval performance by relevance feedback, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.41, issue.4, p.288297, 1990.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199006)41:4<288::AID-ASI8>3.0.CO;2-H
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.92.3553

G. Salton, E. Fox, and H. Wu, Extended Boolean information retrieval, Communications of the ACM, vol.26, issue.11, p.10021036, 1983.
DOI : 10.1145/182.358466
URL : http://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/6351/1/82-511.pdf

G. Salton, A. Wong, and C. Et-yang, A Vector Space Model for Automatic, Communications of the ACM, vol.18, issue.11, p.613620, 1975.

M. Sanderson, Word Sense Disambiguation and Information Retrieval, Thèse de doctorat, 1997.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4471-2099-5_15
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.21.3150

T. Saracevic, Relevance Reconsidered, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science (COLIS), 1996.

K. Sauvagnat, Modèle exible pour la recherche d'information dans des corpus de documents semi-structurés, Thèse de doctorat, 2005.

J. Savoy, Stemming of French words based on grammatical categories, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.44, issue.1, p.19, 1993.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199301)44:1<1::AID-ASI1>3.0.CO;2-1

J. Savoy, A Stemming Procedure and Stopword List for General French Corpora, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol.50, issue.10, p.944952, 1999.

J. Savoy, Morphologie et recherche d'information. Rapport technique, Institut interfacultaire d'informatique, 2002.

J. Savoy, A. L. Calvé, and D. Vrajitoru, Report on the TREC-5 Experiment : Data Fusion and Collection Fusion, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1997.

R. C. Schank, Conceptual dependency: A theory of natural language understanding, Cognitive Psychology, vol.3, issue.4, p.532631, 1972.
DOI : 10.1016/0010-0285(72)90022-9

H. Schmid, Probabilistic Part-of-Speech Tagging Using Decision Trees, éditeurs : New Methods in Language Processing, p.154164, 1997.

H. Schütze and J. O. Et-pedersen, Information Retrieval Based on Word Senses, Proceedings of the 4th Annual Symposium on Document Analysis and Information Retrieval, 1995.

A. K. Singhal, Term Weighting Revisited, Thèse de doctorat, 1997.

A. F. Smeaton, Using NLP or NLP Ressources for Information Retrieval Tasks, Strzalkowski, T., éditeur : Natural Language Information Retrieval, p.99111, 1999.

A. F. Smeaton, F. Kelledy, and R. Et-o-'donell, TREC-4 Experiments at Dublin City University : Thresholding Posting Lists, Query Expansion with wordnet and POS Tagging of Spanish, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1995.

F. Song and W. B. Et-croft, A general language model for information retrieval, Proceedings of the eighth international conference on Information and knowledge management , CIKM '99, 1999.
DOI : 10.1145/319950.320022

J. F. Sowa, On conceptual structures, Artificial Intelligence, vol.34, issue.3, 1984.
DOI : 10.1016/0004-3702(88)90069-0

S. Jones and K. , What is the Role of NLP in Text Retrieval?, Strzalkowski , T., éditeur : Natural Language Information Retrieval, p.124, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-017-2388-6_1

S. Jones and K. , Summary Performance Comparisons, TREC-2 through TREC-8 éditeurs : The 8th Text Retrieval Conference, p.1, 2000.

S. Jones, K. Et-rijsbergen, and C. J. , Report on the Need for and Provision of an Ideal Information Retrieval Test Collection. Rapport technique, 1975.

S. Jones, K. Walker, S. Et-robertson, and S. E. , A Probabilistic Model for Information Retrieval : Development and Comparative Experiments, part 1 and 2, Information Processing and Management, issue.6, p.36779840, 2000.

M. Srikanth and R. Et-srihari, Biterm language models for document retrieval, Proceedings of the 25th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '02, 2002.
DOI : 10.1145/564376.564476
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.2.2897

T. Strzalkowski, F. Lin, J. Wang, and J. Et-perez-carballo, Evaluating Natural Language Processing Techniques in Information Retrieval, Strzalkowski, T., éditeur : Natural Language Information Retrieval, p.113145, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/978-94-017-2388-6_5

G. G. Towell and E. M. Et-voorhees, Disambiguating Highly Ambiguous Words, Computational Linguistics, vol.24, issue.1, p.125145, 1998.

H. T. Turtle and W. B. Et-croft, Evaluation of an inference network-based retrieval model, ACM Transactions on Information Systems, vol.9, issue.3, p.187222, 1991.
DOI : 10.1145/125187.125188

O. Uzuner, B. Katz, and D. Et-yuret, Word Sense Disambiguation for Information Retrieval, Proceedings of the 16th National Conference on Articial Intelligence (AAAI), 1999.

J. Vilares-ferro, F. M. Barcala, and M. A. Et-alonso, Using Syntactic Dependency-Pairs Conation to Improve Retrieval Performance in Spanish, Proceedings of the 3th International Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics (CICLING), 2002.

C. C. Vogt and G. W. Et-cottrell, Fusion via a Linear Combination of Scores, Information Retrieval, vol.1, issue.3, p.151173, 1999.

E. M. Voorhees, Using wordnet for Text Retrieval éditeur : wordnet : An Electronic Lexical Database, p.285303, 1998.

E. M. Voorhees, Natural Language Processing and Information Retrieval, éditeur : Information Extraction : Towards Scalable, Adaptable Systems, p.3248, 1999.
DOI : 10.1007/3-540-48089-7_3
URL : http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.30.2230

E. M. Voorhees and D. Et-harman, Overview of the 5th Text Retrieval Conference, 1996.

R. Wilkinson, P. Hingston, and T. Et-osborn, Incorporating the vector space model in a neural network used for document retrieval, Library Hi Tech, vol.10, issue.1/2, pp.69-75, 1992.
DOI : 10.1108/eb047846

S. K. Wong, W. Ziarko, and C. N. Et-wong, Generalized vector spaces model in information retrieval, Proceedings of the 8th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval , SIGIR '85, 1985.
DOI : 10.1145/253495.253506

W. A. Woods and J. Et-ambroziak, Natural Language Technology in Precision Content Retrieval, Proceedings of the International Conference on Natural Language Processing and Industrial ApplicationsNLP+IA), 1998.

J. Xu and W. B. Et-croft, Corpus-based stemming using cooccurrence of word variants, ACM Transactions on Information Systems, vol.16, issue.1, p.6181, 1998.
DOI : 10.1145/267954.267957

J. Xu and W. B. Et-croft, Improving the effectiveness of information retrieval with local context analysis, ACM Transactions on Information Systems, vol.18, issue.1, pp.79-112, 2000.
DOI : 10.1145/333135.333138

E. Yom-tom, S. Fine, D. Carmel, A. Darlow, and E. Et-amitay, Learning to Estimate Query Diculty : Including Applications to Missing Content Detection and Distributed Information Retrieval, Proceedings of the 28th ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 2005.

C. Zhai, X. Tong, N. Milic-frayling, and D. A. Et-evans, Evaluation of Syntactic Phrase Indexing -CLARIT NLP Track Report, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Text Retrieval (TREC), 1997.

G. K. Zipf, Human Behavior and the Principle of Least, 1949.

J. Zobel, How Reliable are the Results of Large-Scale Iinformation Retrieval Experiments, Proceedings of the 21st ACM International Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR), 1998.

P. Zweigenbaum, N. Grabar, and S. Et-darmoni, Apport de connaissances morphologiques pour la projection de requêtes sur une terminologie normalisée, Proceedings of 8ème conférence annuelle sur le traitement automatique des langues naturelles (TALN), 2001.

P. Zweigenbaum and C. Et-menelas, MENELAS: an access system for medical records using natural language, Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, vol.45, issue.1-2, p.117120, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/0169-2607(94)90029-9