D. Carvalho and C. J. , Revis??o das esp??cies e posi????o sistem??tica de Palpibracus Rondani (Diptera, Muscidae), Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, vol.6, issue.2, pp.325-375, 1989.
DOI : 10.1590/S0101-81751989000200016
URL : http://doi.org/10.1590/s0101-81751989000200016

D. Carvalho and C. J. , Classifica????o de Muscidae (Diptera): uma proposta atrav??s da an??lise clad??stical, Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, vol.6, issue.4, pp.627-648, 1989.
DOI : 10.1590/S0101-81751989000400009

D. Carvalho, C. J. Couri, and M. S. , ) Part I. Basal groups, 2002.

. Coenosiinae, Systematic Entomology, pp.373-392

M. S. Couri and C. J. De-carvalho, Systematic relations among Philornis Meinert, Passeromyia Rodhain & Villeneuve and allied genera (Diptera, Muscidae), Brazilian Journal of Biology, vol.63, issue.2, pp.223-232, 2003.
DOI : 10.1590/S1519-69842003000200007

C. Garros, J. Gilles, and G. Duvallet, Un nouveau caractère morphologique pour distinguer Stomoxys calcitrans et S. niger (Dipter:Muscidae) Comparaison de populations de l'île de la Réunion, Parasite, vol.11, pp.329-332, 2004.

P. A. Goloboff, Self-Weighted Optimization: Tree Searches and Character State Reconstructions under Implied Transformation Costs, Cladistics, vol.183, issue.3, pp.225-245, 1997.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1096-0031.1996.tb00189.x

P. A. Goloboff, J. S. Farris, and K. C. Nixon, TNT, a free program for phylogenetic analysis, Cladistics, vol.183, issue.5, pp.774-786, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2008.00217.x

W. Hennig, Vorarbeiten zu einem phylogenetischen System der Muscidae (Diptera: Cyclorrhapha) Stuttgarter Beitrâge Zur Naturkunde, pp.1-100, 1965.

S. N. Kutty, T. Pape, A. Pont, B. M. Weigmann, and R. Meier, The Muscoidea (Diptera: Calyptratae) are paraphyletic: Evidence from four mitochondrial and four nuclear genes, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, vol.49, issue.2, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.08.012

J. R. Malloch, Exotic Muscaridae (Diptera). -XXXVI. [Part.] Annals and Magasine of Naural History, pp.377-405, 1932.

J. R. Malloch, Exotic Muscaridae (Diptera). -XXXVI. [Part.] Annals and Magasine of Naural History, pp.421-447, 1932.

J. R. Malloch, Exotic Muscaridae (Diptera). -XXXVI. Annals and Magasine of Naural History, pp.501-518, 1932.

J. R. Malloch, Muscidae, pp.171-346, 1934.

R. Masmeatathip, J. Gilles, C. Ketavan, and G. Duvallet, spp. (Diptera: Muscidae) in Kamphaengsaen Campus, Nakornpathom province, Thailand, Parasite, vol.13, issue.3, pp.245-250, 2006.
DOI : 10.1051/parasite/2006133245

S. S. Nihei and C. J. De-carvalho, Phylogeny and classification of Muscini (Diptera, Muscidae), Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.149, issue.4, pp.493-532, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00252.x

J. Savage and T. A. Wheeler, Phylogeny of the Azeliini (Diptera: Muscidae), Studia Dipterologica, vol.11, pp.259-299, 2004.

J. Savage, T. A. Wheeler, and B. M. Wiegmann, Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Thricops Rondani (Diptera: Muscidae) based on molecular and morphological characters, Systematic Entomology, vol.51, issue.1920, pp.395-414, 2004.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0307-6970.2004.00252.x

E. Séguy, Diptera, Fam, Muscidae. ? Genera Insect, vol.205, p.604, 1937.

G. S. Schuehli and C. J. De-carvalho, Revision and cladistics of the Neotropical genus Pseudoptilolepis Snyder (Diptera, Muscidae) Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, pp.23-34, 2005.

D. L. Swofford, PAUP*: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (*and Other Methods) Sinauer Associates, 2002.

M. D. Wilson, J. Post, and D. A. Boakyle, (Diptera: Simuliidae) using a portable rearing system, Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology, vol.47, issue.2, pp.169-174, 1992.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/53.2.213

J. C. Avise, Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution, 2004.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4615-2381-9

H. Thomas, A consideration of some major topics concerning Old World Miocene mammalian chronology, migrations and paleogeography, Geobios, vol.20, pp.431-439, 1987.

J. B. Campbell, R. G. White, J. E. Wright, R. Crookshank, and D. C. Clanton, Effects of Stable Flies on Weight Gains and Feed Efficiency of Calves on Growing or Finishing Rations, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.70, issue.5, pp.592-594, 1977.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/70.5.592

J. B. Campbell, S. R. Skoda, D. R. Berkerile, D. J. Boxler, G. D. Thomas et al., Effects of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on Weight Gains of Grazing Yearling Cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.94, issue.3, pp.780-783, 2001.
DOI : 10.1603/0022-0493-94.3.780

J. D. Charlwood and J. Lopes, The age-structure and biting behaviour of Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) from Manaus, Brazil, Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.66, issue.04, pp.549-555, 1980.
DOI : 10.1038/268731a0

J. Castresana, Selection of Conserved Blocks from Multiple Alignments for Their Use in Phylogenetic Analysis, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol.17, issue.4, pp.540-552, 2000.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026334

. Coenosiinae, Systematic Entomology, pp.373-392

D. 'amico, F. Gouteux, J. P. , L. Gall, F. Cuisance et al., Are stable fly (Diptera: Stomoxyinae) vectors of Trypanosoma vivax in the Central African Republic, Veterinary Research, vol.27, pp.161-170, 1996.

D. Carvalho, C. J. Couri, M. S. Pont, A. C. Pamplona, D. M. Lopes et al., A Catalogue of the Muscidae (Diptera) of the Neotropical Region, ) A catalogue of the Muscidae (Diptera) of the Neotropical region, pp.1-282, 2005.
DOI : 10.11646/zootaxa.860.1.1

D. Carvalho, C. J. Pont, and A. C. , Taxonomy, cladistics and biogeography of the South American Brachygasterina Macquart (Diptera: Muscidae), Zootaxa, vol.1151, pp.1-26, 2006.

R. Desalle and A. V. Brower, Process Partitions, Congruence, and the Independence of Characters: Inferring Relationships among Closely Related Hawaiian Drosophila from Multiple Gene Regions, Systematic Biology, vol.46, issue.4, pp.751-64, 1997.
DOI : 10.1093/sysbio/46.4.751

R. Desalle, M. G. Egan, and M. Siddal, The unholy trinity: taxonomy, species delimitation and DNA barcoding, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.18, issue.1, pp.1905-1916, 2005.
DOI : 10.1080/106351502753475880

E. J. Douzery, F. Delsuc, and H. Philippe, Les datations mol??culaires ?? l???heure de la g??nomique, m??decine/sciences, vol.22, issue.4, pp.374-380, 2006.
DOI : 10.1051/medsci/2006224374

N. L. Evenhuis, Catalogue of the fossil flies of the world, Insecta: Diptera), 1994.

J. S. Farris, M. Källersjö, A. G. Kluge, and C. Bult, TESTING SIGNIFICANCE OF INCONGRUENCE, Cladistics, vol.30, issue.3, pp.315-319, 1994.
DOI : 10.1006/clad.1994.1005

L. D. Foil and J. R. Gorham, Mechanical transmission of disease agents by arthropods The Netherlands, Medical Entomology. Dordrecht, pp.461-514, 2000.

S. Guindon and O. Gascuel, A Simple, Fast, and Accurate Algorithm to Estimate Large Phylogenies by Maximum Likelihood, Systematic Biology, vol.52, issue.5, pp.696-704, 2003.
DOI : 10.1080/10635150390235520

Z. T. Guo, W. F. Ruddiman, Q. Z. Hao, H. B. Wu, Y. S. Qiao et al., Onset of Asian desertification by 22???Myr ago inferred from loess deposits in China, Nature, vol.13, issue.6877, pp.159-163, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/416159a

T. A. Hall, BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95, NT. Nucleic Acids Symposium Series, vol.98, issue.41, pp.95-98, 1999.

J. P. Huelsenbeck and F. Ronquist, MRBAYES: Bayesian inference of phylogenetic trees, Bioinformatics, vol.17, issue.8, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/bioinformatics/17.8.754

T. N. Kangwagye, The seasonal incidence of biting flies (Diptera) in Rwenzori National Park and Kigezi Game Reserve, Uganda, Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.34, issue.04, pp.535-549, 1974.
DOI : 10.2307/1629

M. Knapp, K. Stöckler, D. Havell, F. Delsuc, F. Sebastiani et al., Relaxed Molecular Clock Provides Evidence for Long-Distance Dispersal of Nothofagus (Southern Beech), PLoS Biology, vol.17, issue.1, 2005.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030014.t003
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00193040

L. Breque, G. C. Weidhaas, D. E. Whitfield, and T. L. , Graphic models as intermediate steps to computerized simulations of stable fly populations, Mosquito News, vol.35, pp.316-321, 1975.

J. C. Avise, Phylogeography. The history and Formation of Species, p.464, 2000.

Z. R. Batista, R. C. Leite, P. R. Oliveira, C. M. Lopes, and L. M. Borges, Populational dynamics of Stomoxys calcitrans (Linneaus) (Diptera: Muscidae) in three biocenosis, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Veterinary Parasitology, vol.130, issue.3-4, pp.343-346, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.03.006

D. V. Beresford and J. F. Sutcliffe, Local Infestation or Long-Distance Migration? The Seasonal Recolonization of Dairy Farms by Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) in South Central Ontario, Canada, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.102, issue.2, pp.788-798, 2009.
DOI : 10.1603/029.102.0241

C. T. Brues, The Geographical Distribution of the Stable fly, Stomoxys Calcitrans, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.6, issue.6, pp.459-477, 1913.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/6.6.459

W. N. Bruce and G. C. Decker, The Relationship of Stable Fly Abundance to Milk Production in Dairy Cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.51, issue.3, pp.269-275, 1958.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/51.3.269

R. Davis, Effects of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on weight gains of grazing yearling cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.94, pp.780-783, 2001.

M. Coluzzi, Spatial distribution of chromosomal inversions and speciation in the Anopheline mosquitoes, Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, vol.96, pp.143-153, 1982.

M. A. Cummings, R. D. Moon, and E. S. Krafsur, North American face flies Old World origins: mitochondrial evidence, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.14, issue.1, pp.48-52, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/25.24.4876

R. Desalle, A. Templeton, I. Mori, S. Pletscher, and J. S. Johnston, Temporal and spatial heterogeneity of mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in natural populations of Drosophila mercatorum, Genetics, vol.116, pp.215-223, 1987.

M. J. Donnelly, M. C. Licht, and T. Lehmann, Evidence for Recent Population Expansion in the Evolutionary History of the Malaria Vectors Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol.18, issue.7, pp.1353-1364, 2001.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003919

G. Duvallet, Combined mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenetic analyses suggest an Oriental origin for parasitic Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae) In preparation

I. Dusfour, J. R. Michaux, R. E. Harbach, and S. Manguin, Speciation and phylogeography of the Southeast Asian Anopheles sundaicus complex, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.7, issue.4, pp.484-493, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2007.02.003

G. H. Eddy, A. Rooth, and F. W. Plapp, Studies on the Flight Habits of Some Marked Insects, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.55, issue.5, p.603, 1962.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/55.5.603

N. M. Eesa and M. M. El-sibae, Population dynamics of some synanthropic fly species in different habitats in Buraydah, Saudi Arabia, Journal of the Egyptian of parasitology, vol.23, issue.1, pp.133-173, 1993.

L. Excoffier, G. Laval, and S. Schneider, Arlequin ver. 3.0: An integrated software package for population genetics data analysis, Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online, vol.1, pp.47-50, 2005.

L. D. Foil and J. A. Hogsette, Biology and control of tabanids, stable flies and horn flies, Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE, vol.13, issue.4, 1994.
DOI : 10.20506/rst.13.4.821

L. D. Foil, C. L. Meek, W. V. Adams, and C. J. Issel, Mechanical transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by deer flies (Chrysops flavidus) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), American Journal of Veterinary Research, vol.44, issue.1, pp.155-156, 1983.

Y. X. Fu, Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth, hitchhiking and backgroud selection, Genetics, vol.147, pp.915-925, 1997.

T. R. Freitas and C. H. Romero, Experimental transmission of bovine leucosis virus by leucocytes recovered from the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, vol.24, pp.101-124, 1991.

J. Gilles, I. Litrico, E. Tillard, and G. Duvallet, Genetic structure and gene flow along an altitudinal gradient among two Stomoxyine species (Diptera: Muscidae) on La Réunion Island, Journal of Medical Entomology, issue.3, pp.44-433, 2007.

T. A. Hall, BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95, NT. Nucleic Acids Symposium Series, vol.98, issue.41, pp.95-98, 1999.

M. T. Hamblin and M. Veuille, Population structure among African and derived populations of Drosophila simulans: evidence for ancient suddivision and recent admixture, 1999.

G. M. Hewitt, The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages, Nature, vol.405, issue.6789, pp.907-913, 2000.
DOI : 10.1038/35016000

J. A. Hogsette, J. P. Ruff, and C. J. Jones, Stable fly biology and control in the northwest Florida, Journal of Agricultural Entomology, vol.4, issue.1, pp.1-11, 1987.

C. J. Jones, J. A. Hogsette, R. B. Patterson, D. E. Milne, D. G. Propp et al., Origin of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on West Florida Beaches: Electrophoretic Analysis of Dispersal, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.28, issue.6, pp.787-795, 1991.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/28.6.787

E. S. Krafsur, Allozyme variation in stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae), Biochemical Genetics, vol.22, issue.5-6, pp.231-239, 1993.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00557332

E. S. Krafsur, M. A. Cummings, M. A. Endsley, J. G. Marquez, and J. D. Nason, Geographic Differentiation in the House Fly Estimated by Microsatellite and Mitochondrial Variation, Journal of Heredity, vol.96, issue.5, pp.96502-512, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/jhered/esi093

T. J. Lysyk, Relationships Between Temperature and Life-History Parameters of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.35, issue.2, pp.107-119, 1998.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/35.2.107

J. G. Marquez, M. A. Cummings, and E. S. Krafsur, Phylogeography of Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Estimated by Diversity at Ribosomal 16S and Cytochrome Oxidase I Mitochondrial Genes, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.44, issue.6, pp.44-998, 2007.
DOI : 10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[998:POSFDM]2.0.CO;2

S. Matthews, D. L. Meehan, D. Y. Onyabe, J. Vineis, I. Nock et al., Evidence for late Pleistocene population expansion of the malarial mosquitoes, Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles gambiae in Nigeria, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.15, issue.4, pp.358-369, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2007.00703.x

R. Meier, K. Shiyang, G. Vaidya, and P. K. Ng, DNA Barcoding and Taxonomy in Diptera: A Tale of High Intraspecific Variability and Low Identification Success, Systematic Biology, vol.55, issue.5, pp.55-715, 2006.
DOI : 10.1080/10635150600969864

R. W. Miller, L. G. Pickens, N. O. Morgan, R. W. Thimijan, and R. L. Wilson, Effect of Stable Flies on Feed Intake and Milk Production of Dairy Cows, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.66, issue.3, pp.711-713, 1973.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/66.3.711

D. Posada and K. A. Crandall, MODELTEST: testing the model of DNA substitution, Bioinformatics, vol.14, issue.9, 1998.
DOI : 10.1093/bioinformatics/14.9.817

P. Pramual, C. Kuvangkadilok, V. Baimai, and C. Walton, Phylogeography of the black fly Simulium tani (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand as inferred from mtDNA sequences, Molecular Ecology, vol.76, issue.13, pp.3989-4001, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02639.x

S. E. Ramos-onsins and J. Rosas, Statistical Properties of New Neutrality Tests Against Population Growth, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol.19, issue.12, pp.2092-2100, 2002.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004034

A. R. Rogers and H. Harpending, Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences, Molecular Biological Evolution, vol.9, pp.552-569, 1992.

J. Rozas, J. C. Sanchez-delbarrio, and X. Messeguer, DnaSP, DNA polymorphism analyses by the coalescent and other methods, Bioinformatics, vol.19, issue.18, pp.2496-2497, 2003.
DOI : 10.1093/bioinformatics/btg359

P. Savolainen, Y. Zhang, J. Luo, J. Lundeberg, and T. Leitner, Genetic Evidence for an East Asian Origin of Domestic Dogs, Science, vol.298, issue.5598, pp.298-1610, 2002.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1073906

F. Zumpt, The Stomoxyinae biting flies of the world. Taxonomy, biology, economic importance and control measures, p.175, 1973.

J. C. Avise, Phylogeography. The history and Formation of Species, p.464, 2000.

N. Barré, Les stomoxes ou mouches boeuf à La Réunion. Pouvoir pathogène, écologie, moyen de lutte, 1981.

D. R. Berkebile, G. D. Thomas, and J. B. Campbell, Overwintering of the Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) in Southeastern Nebraska, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.87, issue.6, pp.1555-1563, 1994.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/87.6.1555

I. L. Berry and J. B. Campbell, Time and Weather Effects on Daily Feeding Patterns of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae), Environmental Entomology, vol.14, issue.3, pp.336-342, 1985.
DOI : 10.1093/ee/14.3.336

I. L. Berry, K. W. Forester, and E. H. Ilcken, Prediction Model for Development Time of Stable Flies, Transactions of the ASAE, vol.19, issue.1, pp.123-127, 1976.
DOI : 10.13031/2013.35979

I. L. Berry, K. W. Forester, and J. B. Campbell, Overwintering Behavior of Stable Flies in Manure Mounds, Environmental Entomology, vol.7, issue.1, pp.67-72, 1978.
DOI : 10.1093/ee/7.1.67

I. L. Berry, S. E. Kunz, and K. W. Forester, A Dynamic Model of the Physiological Development of Immature Stable Flies,, Annals of the Entomological Society of America, vol.70, issue.2, pp.173-176, 1977.
DOI : 10.1093/aesa/70.2.173

I. L. Berry, A. K. Nelson, and A. B. Broce, Effects of Weather on Capture of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) by Alsynite Fiber Glass Traps, Environmental Entomology, vol.15, issue.3, pp.706-709, 1986.
DOI : 10.1093/ee/15.3.706

F. C. Bishopp, The Stable Fly (Stomoxys Calcitrans L.), an Important Live Stock Pest, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.6, issue.1, 1913.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/6.1.112

A. B. Broce, An Improved Alsynite Trap for Stable Flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.25, issue.5, pp.406-409, 1988.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/25.5.406

J. B. Campbell, I. L. Berry, D. J. Boxler, D. Clanton, and G. H. Deutscher, Effects of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on Weight Gain and Feed Efficiency of Feedlot Cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.80, issue.1, pp.117-119, 1987.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/80.1.117

J. D. Castro, Chemical Sterilization of the Stable Fly, Stomoxys calcitrans(Linnaeus), with Metepa and Hempa, 1967.

J. Chantal, Actualités de l'Anthrax ou fièvre charbonneuse, Médecine Tropicale, vol.57, pp.52-60, 1997.

J. D. Charlwood and S. Sama, The age structure, biting cycle and dispersal of Stomoxys niger Macquart (Diptera: Muscidae) from Ifakara, Tanzania, African Entomology, vol.4, issue.2, pp.274-277, 1996.

D. 'amico, F. Gouteux, J. P. , L. Gall, F. Cuisance et al., Are stable fly (Diptera: Stomoxyinae) vectors of Trypanosoma vivax in the central Africa Republic, Veterinary Research, vol.27, pp.161-170, 1996.

P. Darlu and P. Tassy, Reconstruction Phylogénétique, concepts et méthodes, Editions Masson, vol.244, 1993.

C. Darwin, De la variation des animaux et des plantes à l'état domestique, p.10, 1868.

C. Darwin, 1876) L'origine des espèces au moyen de la sélection naturelle ou la lutte pour l'existence dans la nature
DOI : 10.1522/24756283

P. David and S. Samadi, La théorie de l'évolution, 2000.

R. Dawkins, Le gène égoïste. Editions Menges Plio-Pleistocene African climate, Paris. deMenocal, P. B. Science, vol.270, pp.53-59, 1978.

T. Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species. The Columbia Classics in Evolutionary Series, 1937.

C. T. Dougherty, F. W. Knapp, P. B. Burrus, D. C. Willis, and P. L. Cornelius, Behaviour of grazing cattle exposed to small populations of stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) Applied Animal Behaviour Sciences, pp.231-248, 1995.

M. Eigen, W. J. Kloft, and G. Brandner, Transferability of HIV by arthropods supports the hypothesis about transmission of the virus from apes to man, Naturwissenschaften, vol.89, issue.4, pp.185-186, 2002.
DOI : 10.1007/s00114-002-0319-x

N. Eldredge and S. J. Gould, Punctuated Equilibrium: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism", Models in Paleobiology, 1972.

P. Epstein, Climate change and emerging infectious diseases, Microbes and Infection, vol.3, issue.9, pp.747-754, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01429-0

L. D. Foil and J. A. Hogsette, Biology and control of tabanids, stable flies and horn flies, Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE, vol.13, issue.4, 1994.
DOI : 10.20506/rst.13.4.821

L. D. Foil and C. J. Issel, Transmission of Retroviruses by Arthropods, Annual Review of Entomology, vol.36, issue.1, pp.355-381, 1991.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.002035

C. Garros, J. Gilles, and G. Duvallet, Un nouveau caractère morphologique pour distinguer Stomoxys calcitrans et S. niger (Diptera : Muscidae) Comparaison de populations de l'île de La Réunion, Parasite, vol.11, pp.329-332, 2004.

J. Gilles, J. F. David, and G. Duvallet, Temperature Effects on Development and Survival of Two Stable Flies, Stomoxys calcitrans and Stomoxys niger niger (Diptera: Muscidae), in La R??union Island, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.42, issue.3, pp.42-260, 2005.
DOI : 10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0260:TEODAS]2.0.CO;2

J. Gilles, J. F. David, and G. Duvallet, c) Effects of temperature on the rate of increase of two stable flies from La Réunion island, Stomoxys calcitrans and Stomoxys niger niger (Diptera : Muscidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, issue.6, pp.42-959, 2005.

J. Gilles, J. F. David, G. Duvallet, and S. De-la-rocque, Efficiency of traps for Stomoxys calcitrans and Stomoxys niger niger on Reunion Island, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.66, issue.1, pp.65-69, 2007.
DOI : 10.1079/BER2002186

J. Gilles, I. Litrico, and G. Duvallet, Microsatellite loci in the stable fly, Stomoxys niger niger (Diptera: Muscidae) on La Reunion Island, Molecular Ecology Notes, vol.38, issue.1, pp.93-95, 2005.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00991.x

S. J. Gould, Le sourire du flamant rose -Réflexions sur l'histoire naturelle, Editions du Seuil, pp.465-477, 1988.

M. Hafez and F. M. Gamal-eddin, a) Ecological studies on Stomoxys calcitrans L. and sitiens Rond in Egypt, with suggestions on their control, pp.245-254, 1959.

R. Sitiens, with special reference to their biting cycle in nature, pp.291-301

M. Hafez and F. M. Gamal-eddin, The behaviour of the stable fly larva, Stomoxys calcitrans L., towards some environmental factors, pp.341-367, 1961.

M. Harry, Génétique moléculaire et évolutive. Edition Maloine, p.326, 2001.

M. Harry, . Solignac, and D. Lachaise, Molecular Evidence for Parallel Evolution of Adaptive Syndromes in Fig-BreedingLissocephala(Drosophilidae), Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, vol.9, issue.3, pp.542-551, 1998.
DOI : 10.1006/mpev.1998.0508

W. Hennig, Phylogenetic Systematics, Annual Review of Entomology, vol.10, issue.1, pp.97-116, 1965.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525

C. G. Hewitt, The housefly, Musca domestica Linnaeus. A study of its structure, development, bionomics and economy, p.195, 1910.

A. L. Hoch, T. P. Gargan, and C. L. Bailay, Mechanical transmission of Rift Valley fever virus by hematophagous Diptera, American Journal of Tropical Medecine and Hygiena, vol.34, issue.1, pp.188-193, 1985.

J. A. Hogsette, . Nalli, and L. D. Foil, Evaluation of Different Insecticides and Fabric Types for Development of Treated Targets for Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Control, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.101, issue.3, pp.1034-1038, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/101.3.1034

J. Hogsette and J. P. Ruff, Comparative Attraction of Four Different Fiberglass Traps to Various Age and Sex Classes of Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Adults, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.83, issue.3, pp.883-886, 1990.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/83.3.883

J. A. Hogsette, J. P. Ruff, and M. J. Mcgowan, Stable fly integrated pest management (IPM) in Northwest Florida, Journal of the Florida Anti-Mosquito Association, vol.52, pp.48-52, 1981.

J. A. Hogsette, J. P. Ruff, and C. J. Jones, Stable fly biology and control in the northwest Florida, Journal of Agricultural Entomology, vol.4, issue.1, pp.1-11, 1987.

J. Itard, P. C. Chartier, P. C. Morel, and P. M. Troncy, Précis de parasitologie vétérinaire tropicale, p.pp, 2000.

C. J. Jones, J. A. Hogsette, R. S. Patterson, and D. E. Milne, Effects of Natural Saccharide and Pollen Extract Feeding on Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Longevity, Environmental Entomology, vol.14, issue.3, pp.223-227, 1985.
DOI : 10.1093/ee/14.3.223

&. Fuff and J. P. , Origin of stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae) on west Florida beaches: electrophoretic analysis of dispersal, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.28, pp.787-795, 1991.

C. J. Jones, D. E. Milne, R. S. Patterson, E. T. Schreiber, and J. A. Milio, Nectar Feeding by Stomoxys calcitrans, Effects on Reproduction and Survival, 1992.

T. N. Kangwagye, Diurnal and nocturnal biting activity of flies (Diptera) in western Uganda, Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.19, issue.01, pp.17-29, 1973.
DOI : 10.1038/182606b0

M. Kimura, The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution, 1983.

. Cambridge, Traduit de l'anglais par Claudine Montgelard, Théorie neutraliste de l'évolution, Flammarion, 1990.

E. S. Krafsur, Allozyme variation in stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae), Biochemical Genetics, vol.22, issue.5-6, pp.231-239, 1993.
DOI : 10.1007/BF00557332

S. E. Kunz, I. L. Berry, and K. W. Forester, Development of immature forms of Stomoxys calcitrans Diptera-Muscidae, pp.169-172, 1977.

S. E. Kunz and J. Monty, Biology and ecology of Stomoxys nigra Macquart and Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera, Muscidae) in Mauritius, Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.77, issue.04, pp.745-755, 1976.
DOI : 10.1038/182606b0

L. Breque, G. C. Weidhaas, D. E. Whitfield, and T. L. , Graphic models as intermediate steps to computerized simulations of stable fly populations, Mosquito News, vol.35, pp.316-321, 1975.

J. B. Lamarck, Philosophie zoologique, 1809.
DOI : 10.5962/bhl.title.50194

C. Laveissière and P. Grébaut, The trapping tsetse flies (Diptera : Glossinidae), 1990.

M. Leclercq, Les mouches nuisibles aux animaux domestiques, Presses Agronomiques de Gembloux, 0199.

T. J. Lysyk, Adult Resting and Larval Developmental Sites of Stable Flies and House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on Dairies in Alberta, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.86, issue.6, pp.1746-1753, 1993.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/86.6.1746

T. J. Lysyk, Temperature and Population Density Effects on Feeding Activity of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) on Cattle, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.32, issue.4, pp.508-514, 1995.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/32.4.508

T. J. Lysyk and E. S. Krafsur, R??sum??, The Canadian Entomologist, vol.39, issue.05, pp.869-879, 1993.
DOI : 10.1139/z82-247

R. Masmeatathip, J. Gilles, C. Ketavan, and G. Duvallet, a) First survey of seasonal abundance and daily activity of Stomoxys spp, Diptera : Muscidae) in Kamphaengsaen campus, Nakornpathom Province Thailand. Parasite, pp.245-250, 2006.

R. Masmeatathip, C. Ketavan, and G. Duvallet, b) Morphological Studies of Stomoxys spp. (Diptera: Muscidae) in central Thailand, Kasetsart Journal, vol.40, pp.872-881, 2006.

E. Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species, 1942.

G. Mendel, Recherches sur les hybrides végétaux, 1907.

J. A. Meyer and J. J. Petersen, Characterization and Seasonal Distribution of Breeding Sites of Stable Flies and House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on Eastern Nebraska Feedlots and Dairies, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.76, issue.1, pp.103-108, 1983.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/76.1.103

S. Mihok, The development of a multipurpose trap (the Nzi) for tsetse and other biting flies, Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.5, issue.05, pp.385-403, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/0304-4017(89)90039-3

S. Mihok, E. K. Kangethe, and G. K. Kamau, Trials of Traps and Attractants for Stomoxys spp. (Diptera: Muscidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.32, issue.3, pp.283-289, 1995.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/32.3.283

S. Mihok, O. Maramba, E. Munyoki, and J. Kagoiya, a) Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma spp. by African Stomoxyinae, Tropical Medecine and Parasitilogy, vol.46, pp.103-105, 1995.

R. E. Moreau, Africa since the Mesozoic: with particular reference to certain biological problems., Proceedings of the zoological Society of London, pp.869-913, 1952.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1952.tb00789.x

M. Ramsamy, Studies on the large-scale rearing of the stable fly, Stomoxys nigra Macquart (Diptera: Muscidae), Bulletin of Entomological Research, vol.50, issue.03, pp.477-489, 1979.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02371071

J. L. Richard and A. C. Pier, Transmission of Dermatophilus congolensis by Stomoxys calcitrans and Musca domestica, American Journal of Veterinary Research, vol.27, issue.117, pp.419-423, 1966.

H. H. Ross, C. A. Ross, J. R. Ross, M. J. Osborn, R. Hastings et al., A textbook of entomology Global climate change and accuracy of prediction of species geographical ranges: establishment success of introduced ladybirds (Coccinellidae, Chilocorus spp.) worldwide, Journal of Biogeography, vol.26, pp.795-812, 1982.

S. Schofiels and J. Brady, Circadian activity pattern in the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, Physiological Entomology, vol.37, issue.2, pp.159-163, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0022-1910(94)90112-0

S. Schofield and S. J. Torr, A comparison of the feeding behaviour of tsetse and stable flies, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.55, issue.2, pp.177-185, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2915.2001.00281.x

S. W. Simmonds, Observations on the Biology of the Stablefly in Florida, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.37, issue.5, pp.680-686, 1944.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/37.5.680

L. Somme, On the overwintering of house flies (Musca domestica L.) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) in Norway, Norsk Entomologiskl Tidsskrift, vol.11, pp.191-223, 1961.

G. G. Simpson, Tempo and mode in evolution, 1944.

J. P. Smith, R. D. Hall, and G. D. Thomas, Field Parasitism of the Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae), Annals of the Entomological Society of America, vol.80, issue.3, pp.391-397, 1987.
DOI : 10.1093/aesa/80.3.391

B. Sutherland, Some effects of temperature on the adults eggs and pupae of Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera:Muscidae), Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Resaerch, vol.46, pp.223-227, 1979.

A. L. Szalanski, D. B. Taylor, and R. D. Peterson, Population Genetics and Gene Variation of Stable Fly Populations (Diptera: Muscidae) in Nebraska, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.33, issue.3, pp.413-420, 1996.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/33.3.413

D. B. Taylor and D. Berkebile, Comparative Efficiency of Six Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Traps, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.99, issue.4, pp.1415-1419, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/99.4.1415

W. Thuiller, S. Lavorel, and M. B. Araújo, Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change, Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol.2, issue.4, pp.347-357, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0906-7590.2004.03673.x
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00294543

D. F. Williams, Sticky Traps for Sampling Populations of Stomoxys calcitrans, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.66, issue.6, pp.1279-1280, 1973.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/66.6.1279

F. Zumpt, The Stomoxyine biting flies of the world. Taxonomy, biology, economic importance and control measures, 1973.

A. Annexe and . Suite, Distibution de S. sitiens Distribution de S. bengalensis Annexe A (Suite) Distribution de S

S. Bengalensis-picard-inde-À-java-milieu-anthropisé and S. Picard, Région orientale et territoires avoisinant le Paléarctique Milieu anthropisé S. sitiens Rondani Régions éthiopienne et orientale Milieu anthropisé S. niger Macquart S. niger niger Région éthiopienne et Madagascar Milieu anthropisé S. niger bilineatus Région éthiopienne et Madagascar Savane S. inornatus Grünberg Afrique tropicale Forêt primaire S. omega Newstead Régions éthiopienne Forêt primaire S. pallidus Roubaud Afrique tropicale Forêt primaire S

B. D. Whitfield-t and . J. Smith-b, Flight and dispersal of the stable fly, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.66, pp.410-411, 1979.

B. Z. Leite-r, . R. Oliveira-p, . M. Lopes-c, and . M. Borges-l, Populational dynamics of Stomoxys calcitrans (Linneaus ) (Diptera: Muscidae) in three biocenosis, Veterinary Parasitology, vol.130, pp.343-346, 2005.

B. S. Åkesson-m, Ten years of AFLP in ecology and evolution: why so few animals? Molecular Ecology, pp.2899-2914, 2005.

B. M. De, G. S. , and L. H. Trevors-j, Amplified Fragment length polymorphism (AFLP): a review of the procedure and its applications, Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology, vol.21, pp.99-114, 1998.

C. J. , B. I. Boxler-d, and C. H. , Effects of stable fly (Diptera: Muscidea) on weight gain and feed efficiency of feedlot cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.80, pp.117-119, 1987.

C. J. Skoda-s, . R. Berkerile-d, T. J. Boxler-d, and A. D. Davis-r, Effects of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on weight gains of grazing yearling cattle, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.94, pp.780-783, 2001.

C. M. and M. R. Krafsur-e, North American face flies old World origins: mitochondrial evidence, Medical and veterinary Entomology, vol.19, pp.48-52, 2005.

C. M. Krafsur-e, Spatial diversity in mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase in house flies, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.19, pp.53-59, 2005.

D. , A. F. , G. J. , and L. Gall-f, Are stable fly (Diptera: Stomoxyinae) vectors of Trypanosoma vivax in the central Africa Republic, Veterinary Research, vol.27, pp.161-170, 1996.

E. N. El-sibae-m, Population dynamics of some synanthropic fly species in different habitats in Buraydah, Saudi Arabia, Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, vol.23, pp.133-140, 1993.

G. J. Litrico-i and T. E. , Genetic structure and gene flow along an altitudinal gradient among two Stomoxyine species (Diptera: Muscidae) on La Réunion Island, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.44, pp.433-439, 2007.

H. J. and R. J. Jones-c, Stable fly and control in northwest Florida, Journal of Agricultural Entomology, vol.4, pp.1-11, 1987.

K. N. and R. J. Strobeck-c, Influence of landscape on population genetic structure of the alpine butterfly Parnassius smintheus (Papilionidae), Molecular Ecology, vol.8, pp.1481-1495, 1999.

K. E. Cummings-m, . A. Endsley-m, . G. Marquez-j, and . D. Nason-j, Geographic differentiation in the house fly estimated by microsatellite and mitochondrial variation, Journal of Heredity, vol.96, pp.502-512, 2005.

L. M. Milligan-b, Analysis of population genetic structure with RAPD markers, Molecular Ecology, vol.3, pp.91-99, 1994.

M. S. Schwartz-m and L. G. , Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol.18, pp.189-197, 2003.

M. J. Cummings-m and . S. Krafsur-e, Phylogeography of stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae) estimated by diversity at ribosomal 16S and Cytochrome Oxidase I mitochondrial genes, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.44, pp.998-1008, 2007.

M. T. Shaw-k, Use of AFLP markers in surveys of arthropod diversity, Methods in Enzymology, vol.395, pp.161-177, 2005.

M. K. Bentz-b, C. J. O-'neill-m, and O. J. Pfrender-m, Landscape-scale genetic variation in a forest outbreak species, the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus pondersae) Molecular Ecology, pp.553-568, 2007.

P. V. Bakalowicz-m, The protection of karst water resources: the example of the larzac plateau (south of France), Environmental Geology, vol.40, pp.349-358, 2001.

S. A. , M. M. Evans-j, . S. Goldberg-c, . S. Robin-son, . F. Spear-s et al., Putting the " landscape " in landscape genetics, Heredity, vol.98, pp.128-142, 2007.

S. A. and T. D. Peterson-r, Population genetics and gene variation of stable fly populations (Diptera: Muscidae) in Nebraska, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.33, pp.413-420, 1996.

V. X. Beauwens-t, . &. Lemaire-m, and . Roldan-ruiz-i, Data from amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers show indication of size homoplasy and of a relationship between degree of homoplasy and fragment size, Molecular Ecology, issue.11, pp.139-151, 2002.

V. P. Hogers-r and . Bleeker-m, AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting, Nucleic Acids Research, vol.23, pp.4407-4417, 1995.

L. 'émergence-basale-de and S. Indicus-suggère-une-origine-orientale-du-genre-stomoxys-vers-la-fin-de-l-'oligocène, La divergence moléculaire, estimée à 16.3 millions d'années, entre S. niger niger et S. niger bilineatus propose l'élévation de ces deux sous-espèces au rang d'espèces. L'étude phylogéographique de S. calcitrans montre la présence d'une lignée Orientale bien différenciée du reste. Les indices de diversité présument l'existence de deux zones de refuge. La première zone serait orientale, dont la recolonisation est limitée. La deuxième zone est probablement africaine, et a permis la recolonisation des autres régions. Le temps d'expansion de S, calcitrans est vraisemblablement lié au processus de domestication et/ou à la dernière période de glaciation. DISCIPLINE (CNU) : Biologie des Populations et Écologie MOTS-CLÉS 1: Relations phylogénétiques 5: Horloge moléculaire 2: Morphologie 6: Espèce anthropophile 3: ADN mitochondrial et nucléaire 7: Phylogéographie 4: Stomoxys sp

. Département-de-biologie, UMR 5175 CEFE (Centre d'Ecologie fonctionnelle et évolutive) Equipe : Ecologie des arthropodes dans les agroécosystèmes méditerranéens, pp.34199-34204